Broken Rules

The first discussion in this essay will focus on the reasons why institutional policies are broken; should those policies ever be broken; and discuss possible solutions that could eliminate the need to break these rules, which would lessen the pressure employees felt when the policies of the organization were not followed. The second discussion will be about the violent behavior in school-aged children and explore possible solutions to dealing with the explosive rage exhibited toward childcare workers. A problem with breaking rules during the flu and cold season puts not only other children’s health at risk, but the staff’s also.The cleaning schedule for childcare facilities should be on a daily schedule. Many organizations keep a spray bottle of bleach and water to wipe down tables, chairs, desks, and play areas. Others dip all of the toys in a bucket of bleach water at the end of the day to sterilize them, but this does not clean toys that are handled and played with amongst the children before the end of the shift. Facilities hold policies that if the children are running a fever, coughing, sneezing, and have runny noses, the parents should keep the child home or find alternative care while the child recuperates.Many of the organizations realize that in today’s world extended families could be located thousands of miles apart; and finding trustworthy alternative childcare is difficult. Thus, many facilities break their own policies in taking the sick children into their care to help the families, knowing that parents must go to work. The facilities also realize a financial loss in their economic budget when parents hire alternative childcare during the times that the children are ill. And ideal situation in childcare would be to recognize and implement childcare through all the ups and downs that families experience.I propose that childcare facilities create an area away from the main rooms of bustling activities for the ill child or chi ldren. The separate wing would be a quieter place with subdued lighting to induce restful activities while the child recuperates from their compromised physical conditions. The instructor/teacher/worker, who is assigned to that area for the shift, can initiate quiet activities and instruction time. This separate area allows for more nap times in a less busy environment; extra hydration can be given to the ill child without hindrance from the other children.Having assigned personnel to take care of the sick children and keeping them isolated from the main population of the facility, would do more in restricting the spread of the flu and cold viruses to the rest of the children and staff. Parents would not have to struggle with finding alternative childcare, and the facilities would be able to maintain a stable income by taking care of ill children. Most childcare facilities are considered small businesses; therefore, they would be eligible for certain grants to merge these two types of care packages for the parents’ choice of options.Or the facility could charge an extra fee for that month to the child’s family to offset the extra expense in tending to an ill child. The second position of this essay deals with the problems of explosive rage in children towards classmates and staff. Alarming rates in acts of violence have increased dramatically in lower elementary grades. â€Å"Elementary school principals and safety experts say they're seeing more violence and aggression than ever among their youngest students, pointing to what they see as an alarming rise in assaults and threats to classmates and teachers.† 1 Working with the parents to control the unacceptable behavior of their children has failed, so facilities have approached the problem with stricter discipline to get the attention of the children and the parents. It is rare to see full time counselors or social workers in the elementary grades. Many schools districts have opted to sha re these positions to ease the budget demands. Police have to be called in to subdue parents upset with the disciplining of their child.For instance, Minnesota has had to suspend nearly 4,000 kindergartners for violent behavior in 2004 to 2006. This is counterproductive to the classroom environment and hinders students from learning. To gain control of the classroom or childcare area, I propose that priorities be re-evaluated to obtain a higher budget level for implementing full time counselors and security positions. Ongoing certification classes for educators and childcare workers should place emphasis on what constitutes effective treatment for violent children.It is not just a gift to be able to work with difficult children, it takes the philosophy of the teacher/worker that they can make a difference, for the good, in the children’s attitudes. I believe that full time social workers or counselors in the childcare institutions can keep track of the nutrition, health, and sleep patterns of the child that exhibits aggressive behavior. Unions of childcare workers can unite to press Congress for more active research, comparing pre-natal care as it relates to aggression in children. Communities can work along with the schools or other children’s facilities with after school programs.Many ideas can be implemented for the prevention of juvenile delinquency; it only takes someone or some group to initiate and facilitate them. References 1 Toppo, Greg; USA Today, Online; (2003, January 12); retrieved June 7, 2007, from: http://www. usatoday. com/news/nation/2003-01-12-school-violence-usat_x. htm Gordon, Gerard; 1996; Managing Challenging Children; Australia, Prim-Ed Publishing. Taylor, Cecelia Monat, Ph. D. , R. N. ; Merness’ Essentials of Psychiatric Nursing, Thirteenth Edition; (1990); St. Louis, Missouri; The C. V. Mosby Company; pgs. 369-392.

Airport Security Essay

The department of homeland security has spent $40 billion rebuilding the aviation security system since September 11, 2001. Since then airport security has changed drastically, changed the whole world’s attitude towards airport security. The terrorist attack also showed the entire world how easily the old system was to manipulate and how much improvement airports need before they can truly be considered secure. The attacks forced the airline industry to renew and strengthen their focus on security. Many airports in the U.S. have introduced ethnic profiling since September 11, 2001 and the evidence shows this method has helped improve airport security. â€Å"The suspects who have since 9/11/01 been picked up are at least mostly Arabs† (Gale â€Å"Airport Security.† Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection). Security checks are not intended to embarrass or harm anybody; they are a necessary precaution to protect all passengers including Muslims. Not only does the TSA keep an eye on airline security around the globe, but also they have many different layers of security in our nation’s airports. The newest and most controversially is the full body scanner. These x-ray machines strip a person down to their birthday suit. Airport screeners are now federal employees. People are now having to wait longer to be able to pass thru security line to check in. many travelers get pulled aside for full body searches. There are 40 active full body scanners at 19 different airports, by the end of the year officials would like 500 in place. Today forty five thousand employees are working as passenger’s screeners in more than four hundred airports around the country. â€Å"Our top priority is the safety of the traveling public, and TSA constantly strives to explore and implement new technologies that enhance security and strengthen privacy protections for the traveling public†. (â€Å"TSA Takes Next Steps to Further Enhance Passenger Privacy.†) Though airport security was enforced, there was another incident. On Christmas December 25,2009, a twenty-three year old Nigerian named Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab attempted to detonate explosives aboard a Northwest Airlines flight traveling from Amsterdam to Detroit, Michigan. Abdulmutallab had hidden plastic explosives in his underwear, which had gone undetected during the passenger screening process. Abdulmutallab had also been identified as having connection to the terrorist organization Al-Qaeda less than two months before the attempted bombing, and his own father had contacted the American embassy in Nigeria to warn them of his son’s extremist beliefs. The only reason the bombing  Failed was because abdulmutallab did not properly activate the device, and other passengers aboard the plane subdued him. Two weeks after that incident Obama administration mandated extra scrutiny- including full body pat downs- for people flying into the United States from 14 mostly Muslim countries. Under the new rules, all citizens of Afghanistan, Algeria, Lebanon, Libya, Iraq, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia and Yemen must receive a pat down and an extra check of their carry-on bags before boarding a plane bound for the united states, officials said. Citizens of Cuba, Iran, Sudan and Syria- nations considered â€Å"state sponsors of terrorism† (â€Å"Airport Security† January 6,2010). Airlines are still responsible for checking passenger information against government-issued watch lists intended to flag potentially dangerous travelers. Two of the lists are often referred to as the â€Å"No-Fly† (â€Å"Airport Security† January 6,2010) list, are the â€Å"Terrorist Watch List†, (â€Å"Airport Security† January 6,2010) and travelers appearing on these lists are subject to more detailed search or in the case of the â€Å"No Fly† list, are denied the ability to travel. We should appreciate that the airport security is making our trip safe and secure. Any inconvenience people feel is unimportant compared with saving lives by preventing terrorist attacks.

Overview of Qualitative Research Essay

What have sampling and data collection got to do with good qualitative research? My current research project is a mixed phenomenological and meta-analysis of declining membership and participation in the church. Operating on the presumption that sampling and data collection are critical to a study (Gibbs, 2007). Like Gibbs (2007) I want to be guided by the research goal developing theoretical outcomes Gibbs (2007), covering intrinsic participant cognitions, and clearly explaining any limitations (Gibbs et al, 2007). I have decided to reduce the scope of my study to the a case study approach with a Pastor and five Associate Ministers within a single church to which I happen to belong, in the Midwest. I believe these five observers are in the best â€Å"position† to observe this phenomenon and its effects. The information obtained in this first week has led me to the following conclusions concerning sampling and data collection. According to the work of Gibbs, Kealy, Willis, Green, Welch, & Daly (2007), sampling and data collection are intrinsically germane to generalizability (Gibbs et al, 2007). These authors, in agreement with other exceptional researchers, use designs like those of Daly, Willis, Small, Green, et al (2007) who also note that generalizable studies provide a comprehensive analysis of experience (Daly, et al, 2007). There is an imperative for the allowance of immersion to investigate context and population, along with practical constraints operating against sampling and data collection (Gibbs et al, 2007). Qualitative research begins with justification of the research problem with reference to the literature (Gibbs et al, 2007). Qualitative research then according to Willis, Daly, Kealy, Small et al (2007) provides theoretical framework to identify the theoretical conc epts relevant to and employed in the study Willis, et al, 2007). Data is then collected according to a sampling plan, as suggested by Green, Willis, Hughes, and Small, et al, (2007), thus the most acceptable evidence possible, through data analysis  (Green, et al, 2007). The hierarchy of evidence model proposed by Gibbs, et al (2007), offers studies that differing evidences such as the single case study, the descriptive study, the conceptual study, the generalizable study and the interview study (Gibbs et al, 2007). Accordingly transcribed data from verbatim recordings is the most common method of data collection (Gibbs et al, 2007). In these instances individual case studies, are limited by small samples but, capable of provide more information on setting (Gibbs et al, 2007); and Descriptive studies, describe experiences or activities but do not describe their differences (Gibbs et al, 2007). Case and descriptive studies provide good information as long as their limitations are clearly acknowledged (Gibbs et al, 2007). According to Suri (2011), informed decisions concerning sampling are necessary to improving the quality of research (Suri, 2011). Suri additionally points out that data may be retrieved through group discussion, personal journals, follow-up in-depth interviews and researcher field notes (Tuckett and Stewart 2004a, 2004b; Suri, 2011). According to Tuckett, et al 2011 and in agreement with Rubinstein (1994), no rules governing the numbers in sampling apply; however, experiential methods have been used for choosing samples from 1 to 100, with clustering. Some have suggested as few as 12-20 data sources, for the best variation, because no definite rules apply (Baum 2002). Suri notes that according to Patton (1990), some research relies on small samples aiming to study provide depth and thoroughness (Miles and Huberman 1994, Patton 1990). Purposeful sampling is seen as a means for developing rich data, derived non -randomly (Ezzy 2002, Mays and Pope 1995, Reed et al, 1996), Also, accordin g to Lincoln and Cuba (1985) and Higginbotham et al (2001), the desired sample size may unfold, depending on previous studies, allowing the support of emerging theory (Baum 2002, Kuzel 1992, Miles and Huberman1994, Reed et al, 1996). Another issue in data analysis is presented by Sandelowski (2011), when he suggests alternative interpretations of data do not conform to the parameters between methods (Sandelowski, 2011). Sandelowski suggests that taking a view of inquiry as dynamic and flexible rather than static and unchangeable might prevent researchers from succumbing to that follow (Sandelowski, 2011). Sandoelowski also notes that Alvesson and Skoldberg (2009) coined extreme terms such as grounded theory ‘‘dataism’’ (p. 283), the hermeneutic ‘‘narcissism’’, and  critical theory â€Å"reductionism’’ (p. 269). Sandelowski further suggests that data analysis and presentation do not have to be considered as discrete independent operations (Sandelowski, 2011). Recognizing Spalding and Phillips (2007, p. 961), Sandelowski proposed that the use of vignettes will reveal the often concealed author’s vision which Phillips expects will produce do ubt’ (p. 961), inevitably serving to enhance the validity of interpretations (Phillips, 2007, p. 961; (Sandelowski, 2011). Sandelowski finally concludes that recognizing the need to account for problems associated with cognitive flexibility validating qualitative or quantitative inquiry Sandelowski, 2011). In addressing the issue of â€Å"presentation†, I found an article by Simundic (2012), concerning some â€Å"Practical recommendations for statistical analysis and data presentation†. The table below gives a suggestion for what should be included in any presentation of data. In working on the definition of â€Å"saturation† I was able to find the differentiation between the various qualitative methods. The following table is a representation of my findings based on the article by Walker (2012). I was impressed with the definitions provided by this author as he explained the different methods of determining saturation. I found the definitions of to be succinct and to the point, and very helpful in making a decision about which methods to use and when.

Tesco Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Tesco - Essay Example The secret of the organisation’s continued success stems, in part, from its conformity to a code of business conduct which provides guidelines for various personnel in different facets of the organisations’ operations and interactions with stakeholders. In this regard, the current paper aims to critically analyse the organisation’s code of business conduct and to identify three key components that demonstrate the company’s values and business ethics. This analysis will initially provide a description of Tesco’s code of business conduct and its analysis. A discussion of the three key components will subsequently ensue. Critical Analysis of the Code of Business Conduct Tesco’s code of business conduct Tesco’s code of business conduct is accessible through the online medium: http://www.tescoplc.com/media/126222/code_of_business_conduct.pdf. This is introduced by the organisation’s Chief Executive, Terry Leahy. It supports the conte ntions noted by Financial Executives International (2003) which have stipulated that a code of conduct should typically include, among other items, a support from top management in the organizational hierarchy, particularly the Chief Executive Officer, through a message or letter that indicates commitment of the organization to adhere to the highest standards of ethical behaviour; as well as conformity to moral and legal codes and regulations (Financial Executives International, 2003). The entire code contains twenty-three pages, which were published on October 1st 2009, by the organisation’s Corporate and Legal Affairs departmen

Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 12

Questions - Essay Example In the end, the author has provided a plan of actions to overcome the problems. Moreover, the author has given some suggestions to make young people aware of the importance of nursing profession, as well as to encourage them to join this profession. Considering the nature of the second and the third essay, I feel that opening and closing were appropriate because letters and memos do not need anything in the opening and closing paragraphs other than the original motive. I do not see any issue regarding cohesive devises in the essays as all of them have been written professionally. The only issue that I have observed is regarding third essay in which ‘I’d’ could have been replaced by ‘I would’. For example, ‘Division for six years, I’d like to propose†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ could have been replaced by ‘Division for six years, I would like to propose†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. Every other thing, such as, connective words, transitional sentences, and paragraphs seem to be

The surprising fact about the 17th century Spain is not so much its Essay

The surprising fact about the 17th century Spain is not so much its decline as a great power but its survival for so long.' Do y - Essay Example Spain was able to survive. The Spanish government’s decline as a great power is not as important as the how long Spain continues to survive until the end of the 17th century. Henry Arthur (1980) emphasized the English general Oliver Cromwell’s death in 1658 had inflicted a huge loss on the English Army as well as the strength of the French army. Cromwell had joined forces with the French to prevent the Stuarts from regaining the throne in England. The French were interested in the alliance because they did not want the Stuarts to return the English throne. History shows that the Stuarts did return to the English Throne in 1658 after the political turmoil that erupted in England in the same year. When King Charles II ascended the English throne, England stopped its attacks on Spain. Initially, the English commander, Cromwell, sought Catholic France’s alliance in order to defeat Catholic Spain because Cromwell believes God prefers that the Protestant religion shoul d flourish in Europe. Cromwell initially attacked the Spanish trade and treasure routes. Cromwell tried to attack the Spanish forced on Hispaniola. However, the Cromwell attacked failed because the Spanish defensive forces in Hispaniola were too strong compared to the incoming English army. Defeated, Cromwell’s forces fled and reached the shores of Jamaica in May 1655. Overall, the English Admiral Robert Blake attacks did not completely win the war against Spain. The English – French alliance was entitled the Treaty of Paris was signed in March 1657. The treaty emphasised France will join England in attacking Spain in the battle of Flanders. The treaty specified that English will send an estimated 4,900 soldiers and France will send 19,900 soldiers to fight the Spanish soldiers. The war reached the Gravelines, Mardyck and Dunkirk localities where Spain had more gains compared to the English side. Further, during Spain’s war against England, England suffered huge losses. The Spanish counter attack had eradicated the English shipping trade. In the same light, Spain also suffered huge losses when Admiral Blake blockaded Cadiz. The blockade caused a stoppage of the Spanish economy which generated most of its cash inflows from imported silver and gold coming from the Americas. Spain’s King Philip IV was extremely worried with the English Attacks in Italy, Flanders, and Portugal. Furthermore, William Guthrie (2003) reiterated the 30 years French – Spanish war precipitated from the Habsburg rivalry. France attacked Spain at Les Avins in 1635. In response, the Spanish forces used its Southern Netherlands forces to implement speedy counter attacks on French defensive positions. The counterattacks had literally maimed the French economy. In 1643, the French army crushed the previously invincible Spanish army in Rocroi, Northern France. During this time, the Catalonia revolts and the Portuguese revolts had undermined the strength of the Spanish army. During this war, the Spanish forces were trapped between the French forces on one side and the Dutch forces on the other side. As expected, the Spanish forces were trounced by the advancing French forces at the battle of Lens. However, could not overrun the losing Spanish forces strategically entrenched in Flanders. The In the Peace of Westphalia, France was given the Alsace territory. Likewise, Spain

FMC Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

FMC Corporation - Essay Example In any situation where one unit handsomely starts scoring over another, a desire does emerge to replicate its success. Faced with an uphill task ahead, Kenneth Dailey has to negotiate a "change management" consensus with a disinterested, and possibly hostile Green River senior management. After all, it strikes them at their core; it's not easy to convince experience-laden people used to an authoritative style of functioning, to give up on their way of thinking and make a radical departure to an organic system where experience and position count less than skills and performance. nity to exercise his managerial acumen and insight, and see if he can inject the same degree of motivation and passion in the management and in the employees, that Jack Welch was able to when he took over the helm of General Electric in 1981, and brilliantly transformed it from a manufacturing company to the world's biggest service giant. ving change, possible sources of disagreement, and possible range of expectations employees may have in view of a change. No organization must be a one-man show; it is incumbent upon Dailey to brainstorm for the above pointers with everyone concerned, especially the influential senior management lobby without whose support it's difficult to undertake this ambitious makeover. Communications is the key to understanding what exactly ails the organization; all problems and detrimental factors must come to the fore before any tangible decisions are taken. It could be that finance and R&D department heads do not see eye-to-eye due to ideological misgivings, it could be that the purchase division has a tiff with suppliers hampering consistent growth, it could be that low wages has led to a low employee morale and hence, declined productivity. Whatever be the state-of-affairs, Dailey must seek everyone's involvement in seeking answers to tough questions. Like an able surgeon, he must be abl e to diagnose all areas where the company has failed its people, and vice versa. Only then can a remedial plan-of-action follow suit. The next step would be to integrate all the forward and backward functions of Green River in evolving a broad Aberdeen-like framework for corporate excellence. Und- erstandably, Aberdeen's open framework was not built in a day. In order to start from scratch, Dailey may

War & Medicine and Neuroscience & War (This is not a official title, Essay

War & Medicine and Neuroscience & War (This is not a official title, you can make one) - Essay Example First, it is apparent that the combat mortality rates of the American military have remained constant at 20% as at the Vietnam War. This is despite improvements in antibiotics, hospital facilities in theater, the advent of blood transfusions and preventative health methods such as improved nutrition. The one exception evident in the war has been the reduction in death in military combatants due to infectious illnesses and diseases. The reduction has been because of the introduction of the prophylactic use of antibiotics, improvement in sanitary conditions and hygiene (Wiesmann et al, 227). The high rate of development in weapons posses an equal challenge to come up with life-saving skills in the battlefield. Research, on the other hand, has proved that battlefield medical care of the future will evolve rapidly to obtain the capability to quickly diagnose the severity and nature of the battle injury. The American military has gone a step ahead in implementing a R&D investment in medicine. The R&D investment involves preventative vaccine development, infectious disease research, protective gear and the point-of-care devises. It is apparent that military medical requirements lead to the development of practical medical devices that support military missions. The advances end up being applied in the civilian healthcare in the cases of civilian trauma incidence. Military has been proven to be the first in the use of healthcare technology. Statistics has shown that 3 to 5 percent of the mainstream medicine is derived from warfare (Wiesmann et al, 230). Military has improved healthcare in various ways. One is from the American Revolution where the first command ordered immunization program for the inoculation of smallpox. Also, a three-tiered evacuation system was developed due to the increasing number of the wounded in the battlefield. First was an Aid station that was located next to the battlefield.

Taoism and the Yin Yang Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Taoism and the Yin Yang Philosophy - Essay Example Taoism Taoism serves as both a philosophy and a religion. Its roots can be traced back to ancient Shamanism. The Tao Te Ching which is the second most translated book in history codifies Taoism. Lao Tzu the sage wrote the 81 poems in 500 BC. Taoism is centered on a number of fundamental principles. Just like any other philosophical point of view, it gives a way of perceiving and comprehending reality. The word â€Å"Tao† means the way. The meaning is inclusive of both the way in which individuals view the world surrounding them and the way they interact with life. Our path of action and way of being in the world is influenced by how we view reality. The key principle of Taoism is that all manifestation and life is part of a whole which is inseparable. It is an interrelated organic unity that originates from a mysterious, deep and basically unexplainable origin that is the Tao itself. This principle comprises of everything imaginable. A number of Western translators have likene d this concept to the idea of God, absolute reality or universal mind among others (Centre of Traditional Taoist Studies, 2009). Basic principles of Taoism All aspects of existence are unified by the Tao Te Ching. It brings together both the spiritual and earthly dimensions with principles that operate at the same time in metaphysical, mental and physical realms. Classical Taoist instruction therefore included philosophy, meditation, physical exercise and religious ceremonies to strengthen how core principles exceed dimensions. There are nine key Principles of Taoism that precisely explain its cornerstone religious doctrines. The first principle is that the goal is contentment. Contentment is defined as the only measure that should be used to estimate personal success. Taoism teaches that a physical existence that is content will best make the soul ready for the time when the body will be cast off (Centre of Traditional Taoist Studies, 2009). The second principle is oneness-a holist ic view. Taoism as a religious and philosophical system is built on a view of reality that is holistic. It uses principles that cut across the seen as well as unseen dimensions to unify all existence. Universal oneness is represented with white and black colors that rotate in a circle using its renowned yin-yang symbol. The third principle is the manifestation of the Tao. Since reason alone cannot be trusted, Taoism avoids conceptions that cannot be tested and affirmed by practical application. This requires a Taoist to not only rely on speculation but learn by looking at concrete demonstrations of larger universal forces. The fourth principle is that nature is unkind. Seemingly, since all effort is committed towards survival, there is little compassion in the natural world. Taoists are therefore encouraged by Lao Tzu to adopt an outlook of harsh unconcern towards everyone except a few loved ones. The fifth principle is that of society versus the individual. Taoism is mainly a philo sophy for the individual. It perceives society to be inclusive of confused individuals that freely resign to alluring social patterns. The Taoist therefore distinguishes effective beliefs from ineffective ones. This is by understanding the presence of useful individual beliefs and possibly useless social values (Centre of Traditional Taoist Studies, 2009). The sixth principle is th

Diversity and Multiculturalism Essay Example for Free

Diversity and Multiculturalism Essay Minority is a word describing a group representing a population smaller than the State. They are people of distinct culture, religion, language and ethnicity from the norms of the Society. Any group resembling the stated characteristics is a Minority. This description clearly emphasizes the rebuttal of Human Rights to people who are not living within the standards of the society. Group Rights or Minority Rights, in a popular manner, speaks of the Ethnic discrimination to some and a due right to others. Moreover, a conflict begins when an individual claims of his/her minority group and yet, the State does not recognize a Minority. The group rights tend to protect a certain group and reflects the other laws excluded on their existence, which for many individuals is a direct discrimination. Primarily, rights are powers to act in accordance with the existing system having values and principles approved by the society. It is a claim or title, whether legal, descriptive and moral (Sutton, 2001). The controversy exists regarding group rights on the term called Multiculturalism. This kind of group right often pertains to a member of an ethnic or religious group. Scholars perceive this kind of group right as a barrier to the actions that most ethnic groups have before there was â€Å"civilization. † It is a form of oppression because the majority opposes those traditional beliefs and pursues the so-called â€Å"equality† to such people. Group rights exist to discriminate, oppose and eliminate the traditional acts for the satisfaction of the majority. MULTICULTURALISM Multiculturalism is the opinion that all cultures, from tribesmen and modern civilization, to be equal. However, equality does not address the century old problem because of diverse conditions. Thus, multiculturalism confers with egalitarianism. The objective of multiculturalism is to obliterate the value of free, industrialized civilization, by declaring such civilization no better than the primitive tribalism. It wants to incapacitate the mind’s ability to differentiate good from evil, to differentiate life promoting to what life is negating. Some oppose this principle because they reason out that everyone has a right to moral judgment. The ideas and culture of a specific community should have recognition and respect. ISSUES ON MULTICULTURALISM Many question how the individuals would respect such minority rights if the problem remains on cultural differences. The argument of the multiculturalists’ defenders is that all cultures are equal and some factors coming from this culture are superior to the universal values. Some fruits of Enlightenment and egalitarian movements root from the cultural proponents. Colorful ethnic attire and interesting cuisine may seem interesting and attractive. Nevertheless, with the reality of women and childrens oppression worldwide, multiculturalism is increasingly a policy to maintain that oppression (Kamguian, 2005). The crimes against women become the celebration of traditional cultures and religions with the ignorance on it disadvantages. Governments of Western foundation utilized the policy of multiculturalism in the past, which encourage and uphold the demands for group rights coming from native populations, ethnic minorities or religious groups. However, these cultures have societal cultures that employ members of meaningful ways of life across the full range of human activities, including social, educational, religious, and recreational life. Because these societal cultures play an essential role in the lives of members and because these cultures face extinction, they should have special rights for protection. This accord with group rights but that is not the case with the societal norms like slavery, female genital mutilation, forced marriages, honor killing and other horrors respected by the society. These horrible practices are within the multicultural principle but it the proper action is to eradicate it. The argument begins with multiculturalism, which acts as a substitute policy to ensure a tolerant and democratized compliance in a world that conflicts between cultures eradicate such values. Moreover, the argument leads to racism and tyranny, as the dominant group want to create a universal norm. Another argument consists of the human basic need for cultural attachments. This need then should have protection from validating and protecting different cultures. The supporters of multiculturalism contrast that individual rights is sufficient enough for protection of minority cultures or their way of life that has a consequence of having special group rights and privileges such as arbitrations from Sharia in Canada and allowances fro polygamous men in France. In other cases, group rights claim to have political exclusions, govern their principles and exempt them from the general law. Often, cultures are patriarchal and many cultures claim group rights are more patriarchal than the surrounding cultures. Examples are the common gender inequalities like child marriages, forced marriages, divorce systems biased against women, polygamy and clitoridoctomy. These cases violate women and children’s individual rights of the society. This respect for cultural traditions resulted to lack of support and voices for women and children and the marginalization of progressive forces. When one observes the culture of these minority groups, they would see how oppression and repression reside within their own communities. Not all cultures are equal even though humans’ possess culture, some may be better that the other cultures and others may possess values unacceptable to the society. Indeed the very idea of equality is the product of the Enlightenment and the political and intellectual revolutions that it unleashed (Kamguian, 2005). Forcing equality means to challenge accepted practices and believing in possibility of transformation. However, permitting the differences by the dominant culture is the acceptance of the society as a whole. The diversity movement is not imparting knowledge to students, but promoting racism. – Michael S. Berliner Racism is a notion directing one race as superior to another race. The affirmative action viewed by some is a form of ethnic diversity, a form of politically correct disguise. The belief of racism is that one’s convictions, values and character is particularly based on anatomy or â€Å"blood† and not by judgment. This view tends to see people of different pigmentation as different from the superior pigmentation. The spread of racism causes destruction of the individual in one’s mind. This individual then clings to another race, wanting to have that belongingness because of race diversity. Proponents of diversity seem to be the true racists because they see the world through the color of lens, hair and skin. To multiculturalists, values, thinking and human identity all cling to race. Multiculturalism establishes the oppression in equality. Proponents of diversity teach the youth that people having different cultures also have different capacities resulting to recognition of separatism and glorifying a specific race. This revolutionizes â€Å"racial identity† that aims to erect an unbridgeable perception on race differences. Hence, any cooperation between races is impossible because of their differences being emphasized. ETHNICITY AND GROUP RIGHTS The Ethnic Group has group rights that defend their members who want to exercise their right to behave and enables them to act diversely from the majority. The ethnic group supports their group rights and their representatives, subsequently. It is unnecessary and undesirable to put these rights in a metaphysical entity, which bear their independent human characteristics. In addition, the right in question resorts to be a negative claim. The majority should not forbid such groups to defend their rights. In fact, for the reason that they have the utmost power in defense, they should assist the minority to respect and bear the minority rights in a positive way. However, this can apply to a situation where the ethnic group does a grave misconduct not prevented by the existing rules and regulations. Another is that the ethnic group should observe the group rights, voluntarily and autonomously. People cannot defend a right not chosen by them. Sutton defines that in order to enact such rights they must show the capacity to understand to successful claimants (Sutton, 2001, p 21). The ethnic group rights should correspond with the human rights, as it would give them the right to protect such liberties whenever the majority, which also has human rights, opposes their ethnic habits. Nonetheless, the civil liberty of individuals and ethnic group rights come from the principle of prima facie rights, which explains the liberty experienced by the ethnic group due to these rights has limitations whenever the ethnic habits impose grave suffering or serious restrictions of liberty on other human beings. In general, the obligation of the majority has a duty not to restrict freedom when they wish to observe harmless habits and if the majority’s opposition puts a grave suffering to the ethnic group, then, they have to restrict such opposition (Hayry, 2007). Ethnic minorities do not have a group right to force or coerce their members into observing duties, which are not required by the principles of liberty and the avoidance of suffering (Hayry, 2007). Individuals have three duties, the duty not to inflict harm to another individual, the duty not to restrict unreasonably the freedom of others and the duty not to breach voluntary, harmless contracts. The first duty means for the individuals to act accordingly to the rule of the group without coercing such right. The argument then is the term ethnic group coerces their right because they did not choose the term themselves but a group will not defend a right not made by them. Hence, the general implication is to coerce such freedom, which they themselves have not freely assumed. The second duty restricts any enforcement of freedom, which proves to be unnecessary to the ethnic group. The majority would see that being a member of a minority group would enforce the second duty that is false in belief that will alter the norms. Conversely, everyone has the duty to restrict or condemn habits that will impose suffering and unwarranted restrictions of freedom. In general, the second argument gives the majority the right to restrict ethnic habits given that it will impose harm to the society but it should exceed the principles of equality and fairness. Most of the majority will regard the thesis of defense concerning ethnic habits, which they find different from the norms, false. This is natural, as the dominant groups want a homogenous society supplying the best foundation for human flourishing, even if it costs the principle of liberty and avoidance of suffering. Nonetheless, the significant patterns that endow social conformity should have actions in eliminating cultural diversity (Hayry, 2007). INDIVIDUALISM VERSUS MULTICULTURALISM The principle on individualism is the individual as the primary unit of reality and the ultimate preference of value. Contrary to what other opinions say, individualism does not deny the existence of a society rather the society as a group of individuals not above those individuals. Individualism sees every person as the end of himself and there should be no sacrifice of an individual for another (Stata, 1992). The achievement of an individual credits for himself/herself and not based on the achievements of others. Even though the society believes of individualism as isolation, it does not deny the cooperation but is a theory of the conditions living and working with other people as beneficial. In general, individualism gives credit to an individual and not on the individual’s membership with a society. The probable cure for racial differences is individualism or seeing the person not because of his/her race but because of his/her abilities. The diversity movement aims to teach the following: diversity awareness, diversity training, diversity hiring and submissions and diversity accommodations, which all refer to racial preference. The proper dose on racial issues is to appreciate individually and treatment of collective merits (Locke, 2000). CONCLUSION Protection of human rights in various fields becomes depressing in the past century. Many have resulted to war, as they protect their community from discrimination and sustenance of group rights. Before group rights, many institutions protected the safety of minorities. Three major periods existed in favor of minority group rights. The first period appeared in a non-systematic protection comprising mainly of incorporation of protective clauses, particularly in favor of religious minorities. The second period existed after World War I within the framework of the League of Nations. Lastly are the developments following World War II (Lerner, 2003) on group rights. With all these developments in minorities and group rights, still the existing truth on racial discrimination is emerging. Many say of diversity as an act of racism, that employing group rights does not prove to be efficient in eradicating discrimination. Briefly, group rights is not a power rather a suppression, racial diversity and oppression hiding in equality. References Berliner, M. Diversity and Multiculturalism. 24 May 2000 14 November 2007 http://www.aynrand. org/site/News2? JServSessionIdr009=rpsx4ci8k4. app7apage=NewsArticleid=5195news_iv_ctrl=1076 Sutton, P. Kinds of Rights in Country: Recognising Customary Rights as Incidents of Native Title. 2001. 14 November 2007 p. 29 National Native Title Tribunal. Hayry, H. Ethnicity and Group Rights, Individual Liberties and Immoral Obligations. 14 November 2007 http://www. bu. edu/wcp/Papers/Soci/SociHayr. htm Minority. 14 November 2007 http://www. terralingua. org/Definitions/DMinority. html Kamguian, A. Universal Rights versus Individual Rights. 6 July 2005 14 November 2007 http://www. iheu. org/node/1691 Culture and Multiculturalism. 14 November 2007 http://www. aynrand. org/site/PageServer? pagename=media_topic_multiculturalism Locke, E. Individualism – The Only Cure for Racism. 12 December 1997 14 November 2007 http://www. aynrand. org/site/News2? JServSessionIdr009=rpsx4ci8k4. app7apage=NewsArticleid=6167news_iv_ctrl=1076 Lerner, N. Group Rights and Discrimination in International Law. Boston: Martinus Nihjoff Publishers, 2003.

Corruption In Africa Solutions and Effects

Corruption In Africa Solutions and Effects Africa, a continent abundantly gifted with natural resources and astronomical value of human capital is yet to find its rightful place among the comity of nations. A key cause that has been to blame for her lack of socioeconomic development is the trend of bad leadership and corruption. The essence of the paper rest in the fact that political leadership as well as corruption was entwined and it is alongside this backdrop that it explored the fraudulent trend of the political ruling class in Africa. The paper concludes that for Africa to experience sustainable socio-economic development, reliable and trustworthy leaders must materialize to embed the act of good and selfless governance in the country. INTRODUCTION Africa in recent times is bombarded by an inherent predicament in comparison with other Latin American countries and Asia. In illustration from the practice of other developed Countries, one needs to be cautious in order to escape easy oversimplifications in regard to contemporary determinants for African economic and social makeover. Every significant thought of African development plan must take notice to the crucial matter of good leadership as well as eradication of corruption at all stages. The ruling class in Africa many a times plead ignorance of the fact that they are in power in order to be of service to the citizens and not vice versa ; they exploit their positions to put as much public money as they can in their pockets and even get away with it! Unfortunately most African countries have come to acknowledge corruption as a normal occurrence and often see it as a means to an end. However on the other hand leaders of the developed world, are often placed under a 24 hour watchful scrutiny, their past is vigilantly investigated before ascending to any public office. Transparency International approximates that corruption in Africa robs us 25 to 35 percent of financial support from essential service provision, in addition many research studies and newspapers have proven that African leaders extract billions every year from their economically weak countries. In 1999 the United Nations approximated that the ruling elites drained more than 250billion dollars out of Africa. Ayittey (2004) and Lawal (2007) agree that the summation was more than half the African foreign debt and that it surpassed the quantity of foreign aid to Africa and concluded that policy makers in the region face an overwhelming task of achieving development goals because Africa has large percentages of highly corrupt countries. Over the years, it has become increasingly clear that the former colonial masters cleverly gave up on political power while at the same time retaining economic power. African leaders were ill equipped and began leadership to a false start. Unprepared for the economic ambush that the neocolonialism would unleash consequently our greedy leaders became easy victims for manipulation by the west. The high ideals of being a servant to the citizens remained largely a big part focus for theory and speech-making. In harmony with the aim for political dominance as an ending in itself, African leaders were unable convert freedom from colonial power to the popular beliefs of democracy and liberty. They were unsuccessful in building capacities for the people to engage in meaningful economic and social development. Power was handed over to a specific individual rather than to the political party, and the leader was seen as a renowned wealthy family as opposed to being a representative of the country. Hence religious, cultural and ethnic walls werent synchronized via basis of equitability and fair balance of interests. Discrepancies that ordinarily should have been eliminated after independence were infact made worse by it. Grumbles of unfairness and ill-treatment by the marginalized parties inside these territories were utterly overlooked. As a result defiance to inequality and preeminence of power by influential groups or families or authoritarian leaders was restrained by bigger abuses of power. Consequently, breaches of human rights and suppression of the manpower that could have otherwise been used for nation building and development. In Nigeria for instance, during the reign of President Olesegun Obasanjo, who was entirely in control of petroleum in Nigeria, it was investigated and reported that over 500 million dollars meant for upkeep and renovations of the oil industry had not been put to any use and infact ghost contactors had been tendered the contracts (Adokoye, 2006: 31). Further it revealed that the petroleum industry, Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) was one of the biggest corrupt bodies in Nigeria. Also in 2004 federal ministers were accused of robbing the public 24 billion naira. Audit by Vincent Azile the auditor general at the time revealed presence of embezzlement, double debiting, inflation of contract figures as well as release of funds without consent from approving authority in at least 15 ministries. Undoubtedly nations in endure effects of poor administration, inadequate judicial infrastructure and insufficient numbers of expertise. But these short-comings cannot explain the abuse and misuse of state power in the continent. For instance, Kenya has a big figure of highly-trained professionals, as well as accountants and constitutional lawyers put down budgetary procedures, with inclusion of provisions for checks and balances. But the fact remains that Kenyan rulers have ignored the provisions of the constitution and put down administrative procedures as irrelevant to the actual workings of government. Omar Al-Bashir, the present President of Sudan, grabbed power in 1989 in a bloodless military coup de ta in opposition to the government of Prime Minister Sadiq al-Mahdi- a government which had been independently elected by the citizens of the country. Shortly after grabbing power, Al-Bashir disintegrated all political parties Sudan, dispersed the countrys parliament and cut out all privately-owned media firms. His time in power has been distinguished by civil conflicts wherein more than one million people have lost their lives not to mention numbers of those who have been rendered refugees by the war and at the same time several millions have lost their livelihoods. Not to mention that Al-Bashir has a warrant of arrest on his head and has been sought after by the International Criminal Court for prompting crimes against humanity, especially with reference to heading and financing acts of carnage against the people of Southern Sudan. Distinctively corrupt, a diplomatic wikileaks cabl e discovered that Al-Bashir had likely siphoned several $10 billion of his Sudans finances into his personal bank accounts in the United Kingdom. Very disconcerting is how corruption leaves the poverty stricken to be perpetually poor at the same time impedes the growth of democracy and societal construction . (Ribada, 2008) and by deflecting away from the original purpose of funds or services, corruption is assumed to be the sole most significant factor to blame for the catastrophe of leadership and the lack of socio economic development in Africa. Africas corruption is a manifestation of its leadership and institutional failure after gaining it freedom from colonialists essentially because of misuse of power mediocre management of economies, corruption, and absence of democracy, personal wealth are what our leaders today embrace. There are also those who worship the Europeans. Where they invest their ill-gotten gains and wealth stolen from their motherland. Africa continues to be poor because politics is considered an easy ticket to prosperity, to add to that the leadership has no continuity agenda and opt for dying in office, being some of the richest people in the world amidst the most poverty-stricken citizens in the world. In open public speeches African leaders criticize control by the west but in reprehensible booked appointments behind closed doors they are otherwise occupied appealing to Europe and China to carry on where they left off pre-independence. Captivatingly, modern china is gradually becoming a colony of Africa given all the contracts they have taken over in Africa. Meanwhile regional Organizations like the African Union (AU) who one would presume have their work cut out for them, have regrettably done nothing to endorse good governance in Africa. Im quite that the difficulties are known but, the answers for them continue to be hypothetical and set aside on computer memory someplace in Addis Ababa. What we possess are heads that split us up instead unifying. Drawing from the example of the late Muammar El Qaddafi, these divisions turn against them and in the end the outcome is a very overpowering catastrophe that is often difficult to deal with. A renowned journalist Aguako Basaid in his address to Nigerians during a leadership conference said that, an African leader finds it difficult to renounce power and in an attempt to perpetuate himself in power, he gets so many people involved in corrupt practices. Most dictatorial leaders in Africa have had tenures spreading for over 30 decades for example are Zimbabwes Robert Mugabe, Cameroons Paul Biya, Angolas Jose dos Santos, Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, of Equatorial Guinea and like many of their predecessors these leader spent their whole careers enriching themselves, bullying opponents, circumventing all but the simple ensnares of democracy aggressively frustrating movements gunning for constitutional rule . According to Ayittey (2012) they are successful because they control the major arms of government; civil service, electoral bodies, security forces including the military, the press, media and the central banks in their countries. This trend started with the first generation of African nationalist leaders because they enjoyed great honor and prestige making them feel godly and of course absolute power does infact corrupts absolutely. They also came off successful in eliminating or disregarding checks and balances. Instead of they exercised vast systems of patronage and in the process sported enormous power and authority allowing them to subjugate all relevant institutions consequently they helped lay a bad foundation for governance in Africa and corruption rampant in their economies. Institutions today are unable to control excesses of their dictators. Debatably on, can consider Africa as a continent built on unstable ground. Also observed in present times are the ever present cases of electoral fraud, contested elections, presidents with too much power at their disposal and political upheaval not to mention economic policies introduced by government to sustain their domination and exploitation. Conclusion The misfortune in Africa is not that its countries are poor, that is a condition that is a product of history. The misfortune is that it does not have ruling classes dedicated to prevailing over the state of underdevelopment. Bad governance is not a principal predicament of lack of knowledge or infrastructural competence or even of individual dictators. African countries are wakened by instruments of development because of the rulers, not to mention people within and out of government, are aggravated by goals that do not have the slightest to do with the general good. Until this situation changes there is little hope for Africa. Policies aimed at controlling or reducing corruption in African countries must begin with laying the foundation for a strong institution- economic, political and social- in all sectors of the economy.

Correlation Between Gene Mutations and Phenylketonuria

Correlation Between Gene Mutations and Phenylketonuria Mutations of the Phenylalanine Hydroxylase Gene in Iranian Patients with Phenylketonuria Correlation between gene mutations and Phenylketonuria Alireza Biglari1, Fatemeh Saffari 2, Safarali Alizadeh3, Zahra Rashvand 3 , Reza Najafipour4, Mehdi Sahmani4 ABSTRACT Background: Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an autosomal recessive disease results from point mutations in the phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) gene. Objectives: The aim of this study was the identification of sixteen different mutations in Iranian patients with hyperphenylalanemia. Patients and Methods: The mutations were detected during the characterization of PAH genotypes of 39 PKU patients from Qazvin and Zanjan provinces of Iran. Results: These mutations have been analyzed by using PCR and direct sequencing of PCR products, including the splicing sites and the promoter region of all 13 exons of PAH gene . A mutation detection rate of 74.3% was realized. Two mutations were found at high frequencies:R176X(10.25%) and P281L (10.25%).The frequencies of the other mutations were: p.R261Q(7.69%), p.R261X(5.12%), p.R252Q(5.12%),IVS2+5G>A(2.56%),IVS2+5G>C(2.56%),p.L48S(2.56%),c.632delC(2.56%), p.E280K(2.56%), p.R243Q(2.56%), p.I283N(2.56%), IVS9 +5G>A(2.56%), IVS9+1G>A(1.28%), IVS11+1G>C(1.28%), p.C357R(1.28%). Conclusions: The present results confirm the high heterogeneity of the PAH locus and contribute to information about the distribution and frequency of PKU mutations in the Iranian population Key Words: Phenylketonuria. PAH gene. Iranian population. mutation detection 1. Background Deficiency of hepatic phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) [EC.1.14.16.1] is the major frequent cause of hyperphenylalaninemia (1). Phenylalanine hydroxylase convert phenylalanine (Phe) to tyrosine. This enzyme encoded by PAH gene that located on chromosome 12q23.2. The PAH has 13 exons and 12 introns and is 90 kb in size (2). Mutations in any exon of this gene cause damage to the PAH enzyme. Defection of PAH lead to toxic accumulation of phenylalanine in the body fluids and cause damage to the nervous system. This injury can be resulted to growth failure, microcephaly, mental retardation and neurobehavioral abnormalities (3). Phenylketonuria (PKU, MIM# 261600) is one of the most common inborn prevalent disorders of amino acid metabolism characterized by a defect in the hepatic PAH and subsequently phenylalanine accumulation in body fluids (4). According to blood phenylalanine (Phe) levels, PKU has been classified as mild PKU, mild hyperphenylalaninemia (MHP) and classical PKU. Classical PKU is the most severe form of this disorder. Phenylalanine restricted dietary treatment prevents the neurotoxic complications of Phe and its metabolites if it is implemented at an early age (5). The prevalence of PKU varies worldwide. In Caucasians, the prevalence is about 1/10000 live births (5) while Iranian population incidence is 1/3627 (6). In fact, the high rate of consanguineous marriages in Iran may be a contributing factor to the high incidence (References ). The molecular bases of PKU have been studied in different populations, So far, more than several hundred different mutations in the PAH gene have been identified by the PAH Mutation Analysis Consortium in the PKU patients. These mutations have been listed in the PAH mutation Analysis Consortium database (http:// www. Pahb.mcgill.ca). The most frequently occurring type of PAH gene mutations are missense (7). The mutations of PAH gene demonstrate considerable ethnic groups and geographic areas variations (8). Previous researches have shown a correlation between PAH genotypes and metabolic phenotypes in PKU patients. Those studies have demonstrated the phenotypic relations of particular mutation combinations (9-11). Mutation analysis of a given population can be useful for the better understanding functional aspects of mutant proteins and the relationship between genotype and phenotype. 2. Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate the molecular basis of PKU in all PKU Patients from two adjacent provinces of North West of IRAN; Qazvin and Zanjan. For this purpose, all 13 exons of the PAH gene of all patients were analyzed using direct sequencing for detecting of any genetic variations include mutations, polymorphisms and others. 3. Patients and Methods: In this descriptive study; we selected all children with known PAH deficiency living in Qazvin and Zanjan provinces. Thirty-nine unrelated children were enrolled after obtaining informed consents from the parents. All selected cases have several grades of mental retardation except few patients who have diagnosed during neonatal screening exam. Before molecular studies, The PAH activity and phenylalanine concentration of all patient serum samples were measured by standard conventional biochemical methods. The blood phenylalanine concentration ≠¥20 mg/dl was clinical criteria for classical PKUdiagnosis (12). Genomic DNA was extracted from whole blood samples using Qiagen DNA purification kit (Valencia, CA, USA). Specific primers for all 13 exons of PAH gene were designed by primer 3 software and verified them by NCBI database. The PCR conditions for all exons were set experimentally based on each primer specifity. The primers and their reaction specificaions were summarized in table 4. The PCR tests were done by Verity ABI thermal cycler (ABI, USA). PCR products were electrophoresed in 2% agarose gel and visualized after staining by gel red nucleic acid stain (Biotiom; U.S.A). For scanning PAH gene in order to finding any variation in the 13 exons, all amplicons were sequenced by ABI 3130 genetic analyzer (ABI; USA) and the results were matched up to the human genomic DNA sequence in GenBank database to explore the probably mutations. Values were presented as the mean  ± standard deviation and statistical significance was defined as p0.05. All analyses, including the x2 test were carri ed out using SPSS 16 software (SPSS Inc. Chicago. IL. USA). Ethical Considerations of this study was approved by the ethics committee of Qazvin University of medical sciences (Ethic cods; ). 4. Results In this study, a total of 39 PKU patients were subjected to scanning PAH gene heterogeneity from Qazvin and Zanjan province. Among 39 patients, 24 come from the Qazvin province, 15 from the Zanjan. The subjects have 1 month to 10 years old. The serum phenylalanine concentration of all patients was ≠¥20 mg/dl. By whole genome sequencing method, 16 different mutations were found in 78 mutant alleles (Diagnostic efficiency 74.3%). The mutations included eight missense mutations (50%), five splice mutations (31%), two nonsense mutations (12.5%) and one deletion (6.25%). All of the mutations were reported in previous studies (REFERENCES). (Table 1). Exon 7, 6, 2 and the flanking intronic regions consist 85.5% of the mutant alleles. The most frequent of mutations were p.R176X and p.P281L by 10.5% frequency followed by p.R261Q (7.69%), p.R261X and p.R252Q (5.12%) which consist nearly 40% of all mutations. The p.R261X and p.R252Q Mutations were less frequent. All other mutations had frequencies less than 3%. Among the 39 unrelated families studied, 20 (51.2%) were homozygote, 6 (15.3%) heterozygote and 2 (5.12 %) were compound heterozygote and 11 (28.2%) were no PKU causing mutations. In addition, the p.L385L, p.Q232Q and p.V245V polymorphisms also were detected in our study with the frequency of 84%, 51% and 17% respectively. These polymorphisms were seen the highest prevalence in PAH gene at other reports (Table 2). Table 3 are shown genotypes of 39 PKU patients too. 5. Discussion In this research, we looked for genetic heterogeneity in 13 exons of the PAH gene of all PKU patients that admitted to Qazvin and Zanjan University of medical sciences health systems in order to finding causative PKU disease genetic factor. From this experiment, 29 of 39 PKU patients were found to contain the mutation in one or more exons of PAH gene. Our analysis of the homozygosity of the mutations were nearly similar to that observed in northwestern Iranian populations (13). The majority of the recognized mutations were situated in the catalytic domains (143-410 amino acid), and some of them (P281L, R252W) were located in the cofactor binding regions. The most common mutation in our subjects was P281L. These data have the same opinion with other results obtained from Iran (13-14). The P281L mutation in exon 7 with a relative frequency of 10.5% is C→T substitution that lead to conversation of Pro to Leu at codon 281 of PAH gene. The another more frequent mutation in our stu dy was p.R176X (10.25%) which is similar to data obtained from another study at Khorasan Razavi region (14). Previous study on the genotype / phenotype association demonstrated generally a positive correlation between R176 X mutation and classic phenotype (15). Several studies have reported IVS10-11G>A mutation. This is a splice mutation in the end of intron 10 that observed with a high incidence in Mediterranean region, Brazil and some area of Iran including East Azarbaijan, Semnan, Khorasan Razavi and Hamadan (16-19). However this mutation was not found in the present study. The virtual absence of this mutation in our study may reflect the regional variability of populations. The next most frequent mutation in present study was R261Q (7.69%) that occurs on a CpG mutation hotspot on exon 7 that leads to conversion of Arg to Gln at codon 261 of PAH. This mutation is common in the Mediterranean and southern Europe but low incidence in Spain (18, 20-21). We found also R243Q mutation i n 2.5% frequency while other researcher were found it in China and Korea in 18.2% and 12% frequency respectively. Most mutant alleles of PAH that manipulate its transcription and translation can decrease the intracellular stability of protein and finally reduce enzyme function completely. we also explore the association between mutations and polymorphism variations. We observed c.755G>A mutation and c.168+19T>C polymorphism on the same allele together. We also detected association between the p.Q232Q polymorphism and c.842C>T, C781C>T, c.782G>A, c.755G>A and c.526C>T mutations that occurred on the same allele in cis form. similar association have been reported in the previous study (14). In our study, the most mutant alleles were located on exon 7 and 6 (73%). Other studies in Iranian population were reported agreement results with our findings (14, 16). Thereby to plan detection strategy; the samples will be screened first for mutations in these regions. If mutations were not identified, the other exons and their adjacent will be tested. Our results of Iranian individuals with PKU confirm a heterogeneous spectrum of mutations, displaying different ethnic and geographical origins. Moreover, our findings were slightly different from other ethnic groups. These findings can be useful to genotype/phenotype relationship in patients and provide future some ability to confirmatory diagnostic testing, prognosis and predict severity of PKU patients. [V1] References: 1.Guldberg P, Rey F, Zschocke J, Romano V, Francois B, Michiels L, et al. A European multicenter study of phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency: classification of 105 mutations and a general system for genotype-based prediction of metabolic phenotype. American journal of human genetics. 1998 Jul;63(1):71-9. 2.Santos LL, Fonseca CG, Starling AL, Januario JN, Aguiar MJ, Peixoto MG, et al. Variations in genotype-phenotype correlations in phenylketonuria patients. Genetics and molecular research : GMR. 2010;9(1):1-8. 3.Zhang J, Meng J, Zhai X, Fang G, Gao J, Shi M, et al. [Identification of novel mutations in the phenylalanine hydroxylase gene of classical phenylketonuria]. Zhonghua yi xue yi chuan xue za zhi = Zhonghua yixue yichuanxue zazhi = Chinese journal of medical genetics. 2005 Apr;22(2):134-7. 4.Williams RA, Mamotte CD, Burnett JR. Phenylketonuria: an inborn error of phenylalanine metabolism. The Clinical biochemist Reviews / Australian Association of Clinical Biochemists. 2008 Feb;29(1):31-41. 5.Olsson GM, Montgomery SM, Alm J. Family conditions and dietary control in phenylketonuria. Journal of inherited metabolic disease. 2007 Oct;30(5):708-15. 6.Koochmeshgi J, Bagheri A, Hosseini-Mazinani SM. Incidence of phenylketonuria in Iran estimated from consanguineous marriages. Journal of inherited metabolic disease. 2002 Feb;25(1):80-1. 7.Scriver CR. The PAH gene, phenylketonuria, and a paradigm shift. Human mutation. 2007 Sep;28(9):831-45. 8.Zschocke J. Phenylketonuria mutations in Europe. Human mutation. 2003 Apr;21(4):345-56. 9.Kayaalp E, Treacy E, Waters PJ, Byck S, Nowacki P, Scriver CR. Human phenylalanine hydroxylase mutations and hyperphenylalaninemia phenotypes: a metanalysis of genotype-phenotype correlations. American journal of human genetics. 1997 Dec;61(6):1309-17. 10.Desviat LR, Perez B, Garcia MJ, Martinez-Pardo M, Baldellou A, Arena J, et al. Relationship between mutation genotype and biochemical phenotype in a heterogeneous Spanish phenylketonuria population. European journal of human genetics : EJHG. 1997 Jul-Aug;5(4):196-202. 11.Romano V, Guldberg P, Guttler F, Meli C, Mollica F, Pavone L, et al. PAH deficiency in Italy: correlation of genotype with phenotype in the Sicilian population. Journal of inherited metabolic disease. 1996;19(1):15-24. 12.Guttler F. Hyperphenylalaninemia: diagnosis and classification of the various types of phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency in childhood. Acta paediatrica Scandinavica Supplement. 1980;280:1-80. 13.Bonyadi M, Omrani O, Moghanjoghi SM, Shiva S. Mutations of the phenylalanine hydroxylase gene in Iranian Azeri Turkish patients with phenylketonuria. Genetic testing and molecular biomarkers. 2010 Apr;14(2):233-5. 14.Hamzehloei T, Hosseini SA, Vakili R, Mojarad M. Mutation spectrum of the PAH gene in the PKU patients from Khorasan Razavi province of Iran. Gene. 2012 Sep 10;506(1):230-2. 15.Acosta A, Silva W, Jr., Carvalho T, Gomes M, Zago M. Mutations of the phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH) gene in Brazilian patients with phenylketonuria. Human mutation. 2001 Feb;17(2):122-30. 16.Zare-Karizi S, Hosseini-Mazinani SM, Khazaei-Koohpar Z, Seifati SM, Shahsavan-Behboodi B, Akbari MT, et al. Mutation spectrum of phenylketonuria in Iranian population. Molecular genetics and metabolism. 2011 Jan;102(1):29-32. 17.Kleiman S, Avigad S, Vanagaite L, Shmuelevitz A, David M, Eisensmith RC, et al. Origins of hyperphenylalaninemia in Israel. European journal of human genetics : EJHG. 1994;2(1):24-34. 18.Rivera I, Leandro P, Lichter-Konecki U, Tavares de Almeida I, Lechner MC. Population genetics of hyperphenylalaninaemia resulting from phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency in Portugal. Journal of medical genetics. 1998 Apr;35(4):301-4. 19.Dianzani I, Giannattasio S, de Sanctis L, Alliaudi C, Lattanzio P, Dionisi Vici C, et al. Characterization of phenylketonuria alleles in the Italian population. European journal of human genetics : EJHG. 1995;3(5):294-302. 20.Perez B, Desviat LR, De Lucca M, Ugarte M. Spectrum and origin of phenylketonuria mutations in Spain. Acta paediatrica. 1994 Dec;407:34-6. 21.Loeber JG. Neonatal screening in Europe; the situation in 2004. Journal of inherited metabolic disease. 2007 Aug;30(4):430-8. Table 1 spectrum and frequency of PAH mutations identified in 39 patients Table 2 PAH polymorphisms identified in 39 patients Table 3 Distributional genotypes in 39 PKU patients Genotype Polymorphism Number of patients u/u c.168+19T>C , c.1155G>C,c.696A>G 1 c.838G>Ap.E280K/ c.838G>Ap.E280K c.735G>A,c.912G>A,c.1155C>G 1 u/u

Julius Caesar Essay -- essays research papers

SUMMARY: Shakespeare's Julius Caesar is the story of the resulting conflicts from the assassination of perpetual dictator and Roman emperor, Julius Caesar. A great friend of Caesar, Mark Antony, comes to the senate to see the dead body of their dictator. He pretends to not be angry at those who took part in the assassination, and asks to speak at his funeral, a request which he is granted. However, after the men leave, he begins a soliloquy in which he suggests that Caesar's spirit will take revenge upon his murderers and invoke a war involving the entire country. Antony begins the revenge of his death by speaking at the funeral about the wrong done to Caesar, the man's generosity to the people, and how Brutus tried to persuade them to believe his justification of the murder. The crowd turns to agreement with Antony and then accuse the conspirators of murder. The accused men flee, eventually leaving the bounds of the city, and the citizens leave to loot and burn the houses of the guilty men. The armies of Brutus and Cassius set up camps near another city and knowing that Antony's soldiers are coming, they decide to march toward the enemy at once. The fighting begins with the confrontation of the two sides, as Cassius' and Brutus' armies arrive. Antony and his partner challenge the assassins to fight, and the bloody battle begins. The armies of the conspirators fall into vulnerability many times, and their side does poorly, losing many men. Cassius hears mistakenly that one...

Techniques Used in Morris Glietzmans Boy Overboard Essay -- essays re

In Morris Glietzmans heart breaking but remarkable book Boy Overboard, he shows how the corrupt government in Afghanistan has forced out many of its inhabitants making them try to leave the country by avoiding the government and staying in refugee camps until they can leave is in the country. Morris Glietzman shows the pressure put on the families in Afghanistan through similes, metaphors, and humour. The Afghanistan government or the Taliban as they are called, are very harsh and unfair with the laws that are in place in Afghanistan and are not nice to the families in the country. Woman are treated very unfairly in Afghanistan for minor crimes, and are whipped or killed for a crime such as showing there ankles in public or not being with a male person of there family while outside. Similes are used throughout Boy Overboard to show a comparison in the readers mind. By using a comparison with another obje0ct and using like or as to show this comparison the object can be shown to be something normally not possible for the person or object to be or do. One example in the story B...

Essays for the American Pageant, 14th Ed.

Essays for The American Pageant, 14th ed. Part One 1. From the perspective of Native Americans, the Spanish and English empires in America had more similarities than differences. Assess the validity of this generalization. Response Strategy It is important to develop a clear thesis on the validity of the statement at the outset of the essay. A good essay could be developed on either side of the issue or in support of a middle-of –the-road position. Supporting paragraphs should be developed to build the position chosen.Both the Spanish and the English treated the Native Americans as inferiors, thought it important to bring them Christianity, sought to profit economically from relations with the Native Americans, and forced some Native Americans into slavery. Both brought terrible diseases to the New World, though the Spanish impact was more devastating because of earlier arrival. The Spanish attempted to integrate Native Americans into their colonial societies through intermarr iage and through the establishment of agricultural communities with Native American workers.The English separated themselves from Native American life to a greater extent and relied mostly on trade for economic gain. 2. Evaluate the extent of settlement and influence of three of these groups of non-English settlers in North America before 1775. French Dutch Scots Irish German African Response Strategy It is important to point out that English settlers were a definite majority of those in North America during the entire eighteenth century. However, the proportion declined from about twenty to one in 1700 to only about three to one by 1775.So a good essay should point out that the significance of non-English groups was increasing. The next task is to select three groups from the list and describe the influence of each. Of the non-English settlers, the largest group consisted of Africans, most of whom were enslaved and forced to immigrate. The laws and social customs that enabled the i nstitution of slavery to exist were firmly in place by the 1700s. There were enslaved Africans in all of the colonies, though the practice was most prevalent in the South, due to the labor-intensive export crops common there.The French had relatively small settlements in the St. Lawrence River valley, but exerted economic influence over vast expanses of the interior through trade and missionary activities. Because French economic power rivaled that of England, the English feared the French settlers more than those from the other countries, until the French colonies came under English rule in 1763. The Dutch originally controlled the Hudson River valley as a separate colony, but this had been absorbed by New York by the 1700s. Dutch names remained important there and Dutch social customs were influential.The relative poverty and the independent spirit of many of the Scots Irish settlers is demonstrated by their tendency to settle along the western frontiers on both sides of the Appal achians from Pennsylvania southward. They maintained their Presbyterian religion, and a history of struggles with the Church of England meant that they were unlikely to respect the English colonial governments. German settlers located themselves mostly in Pennsylvania where they were called â€Å"Pennsylvania Dutch. † They maintained relatively prosperous farming communities and tried to remain culturally separate from the English. . Explain the theory of mercantilism and the role in played in prompting Americans to rebel in 1776. Essay A (Strong) In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the set of economic ideas that prevailed in the governments of several leading European nations came to be called mercantilism. Based on these ideas, English leaders made decisions that were more advantageous to the mother country than they were to the colonies. While this resulted in some discontent among the colonists, mercantilism by itself was not responsible for the acts of rebellion in 1776.Mercantilism played a role in American independence, but it was only one of a number of ideas and events that were important. Mercantilist ideas emphasized that nations should strive toward economic self-sufficiency and that the power of a nation should be measured by the amount of its gold and silver reserves. Ultimately, a nation should arrange to produce everything it needed for its own citizens and sell surpluses to for hard currency. This metal reserve, in turn, could be used in emergency situations to pay for wars or solve shortages.Colonies, like those England had in North America, played an important part in this economic equation. They could help England become self-sufficient by producing things that could not be made or grown there such as tobacco, sugar, and tall masts for ships. Colonists could also provide a market for British goods, particularly manufactured products, such as woolen cloth or beaver hats. This meant that the home economy in England could becom e more fully developed, while the colonial economies were relegated to a role of supplying raw materials.To insure that the American colonies would contribute to this overall sense of British wealth, various Navigation Acts were passed beginning in 1650 to regulate trade between the colonies, England, and the rest of the world. In many cases, ships carrying American products to other European countries had to stop in England first to pay duties before continuing onward. Also, goods traveling to and from America had to be carried in English or American ships, not Dutch or French, regardless of the source or destination of the cargoes.Furthermore, the requirement that gold and silver be spent to purchase English goods meant that there was a great shortage of money in the colonies. They could only obtain these precious metals by illicit trade with the French and the Spanish colonies. The British right to nullify colonial laws that conflicted with the mother country’s objectives meant that efforts of colonies to issue paper money were sometimes halted because of concerns by English banks and merchants. The colonists often resented these intrusions by British authorities and the resulting limitations on economic opportunities.Despite the existence of the mercantilist policies, relations between Britain and its North American colonies were relatively good through most of the 1600s and 1700s. Partly this was because the Navigation Acts were not well enforced during the period of â€Å"salutary neglect† and the colonial economies grew. Also the Americans gained some advantages from the system such as the tobacco monopoly. Relations became strained to the point of rebellion only after 1763. The royal government began to impose taxes on the colonists, such as Sugar Act, the Stamp Act, and the Townshend Acts.While these new taxes bore some relationship to the mercantilist control of the colonial economies, they were primarily motivated by England’s n eed to pay the expenses of an ongoing struggle with France. There was also a growing awareness among the colonists of the radical Whig ideas that liberties and economic livelihood could be lost to a corrupt government unless actively protected, so colonists were primed to rebel when England tried to increase its colonial revenue stream. Mercantilist ideas set up a situation in which the economic interests of the American colonists were subordinated to those of England.However, this alone was not sufficient to cause the colonists to rebel. The situation tipped toward rebellion after 1763 because of England’s war-related expenses and because the colonists were becoming more aware of their rights and the need to defend them. Essay B Mercantilism was an economic policy that emphasized that, to be successful, a nation had to make money. This meant that it had to sell more than it bought and build up gold and silver reserves. The British strongly believed in this policy.This led th e colonists to rebel in 1776 for three reasons—trade restrictions, economic shortages, and a lack of respect for colonial rights. The Navigation Acts required that the colonists could trade certain enumerated products only with England. This meant that tobacco growers and others had to sell to England, even when better prices could be obtained elsewhere. Also, items shipped to and from the American colonies had to travel in English or American ships, even when other nations might be the customers or might be able to ship things more cheaply.Sometimes exports being send from the colonies to other countries had to land in England first to pay duties to the English. These trade restrictions limited economic opportunities for the colonists, but there were other grievances as well. Manufacturing was discouraged in the colonies since England want to earn money by sending products such as woolen cloth to America to be sold for hard currency. This in turn caused American to be short of gold and silver. Then they could not buy and sell things to each other except through barter.After the French and Indian War, England wanted more money to pay for the expenses incurred in fighting France. Since England had been used to considering the colonists as subordinates under mercantilist policies, they did not hesitate about passing additional taxes such as the hated Stamp Act. The colonists really started to feel threatened and began to talk rebellion. The economic situation and the lack of respect for colonial rights caused by mercantilism were responsible for prompting the colonists to rebel in 1776. Essay C (Weak)Mercantilism was a system set up by England to regulate merchants. It said what each could sell and how much taxes each would have to pay. The merchants in the colonies resented this more than the merchants in England because they had more regulations. There laws like the Navigation Acts to regulate shipping and there were taxes like the tax on tea, which led to the Boston Tea Party. The colonists became rebellious. When British soldiers were sent to enforce the taxes, the colonists did not want to have to pay them or let them live in their houses like was required in the Quartering Act.Eventually the British shot at the colonists in Lexington and Concord where the shot heard round the world was fired. The British were put on notice that there was a rebellion when the Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776. It was written by Thomas Jefferson. He was a farmer, not a merchant, and had an estate in Virginia called Monticello. Part Two 1. To what extent did European events influence the course of American development between 1795 and 1810? Assess with respect to three of the following. XYZ Affair Alien and Sedition Acts Louisiana Purchase Embargo of 1807Response Strategy Start by observing that the French Revolution that began in 1789 and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars plunged Europe into a turbulent historical era. Many Ame ricans hoped to stay out of the European struggles, and this goal was articulated in George Washington’s Farewell Address. However, American merchants depended on free use of the seas for trade, and this brought them into contact with the warring European parties. Some Americans favored Britain, the former mother country and largest trading partner. Other Americans favored France, whose revolution seemed similar to their own.A good essay will develop a thesis demonstrating that European affairs extensively influenced the United States during this time period in both harmful and beneficial ways. When President Adams sent a delegation to France to negotiate fair treatment for American ships, bribes were demanded by unnamed officials labeled X, Y, and Z. This angered many Americans including Alexander Hamilton who wanted to raise an army to fight against France. In 1798, a majority of the new Congress was Federalist and very anti-French. They viewed the statements of many of the Democratic-Republicans (who often favored France) as treasonous.Therefore, they passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, allowing the deportation of aliens and imposing fines and imprisonment on those who criticized the president or Congress. By 1803, France was under the control of Napoleon who needed funds to build the European empire he envisioned. He was also soured on the idea of a French presence in the New World by the rebellion led by Toussaint L’Ouverture in Santo Domingo. These circumstances led to the French sale of Louisiana and a doubling of the size of the United States under Jefferson’s presidency.Jefferson faced additional problems regarding shipping, as both British and French navies were seizing American ships. This led to the Embargo Act of 1807, which aimed at preventing trouble with European countries by stopping all Americans exports. This unpopular and economically disruptive law was repealed in 1809. 2. Analyze the social changes that gave rise to m ass democracy in the United States between 1820 and 1840. Include the roles of three of the following in this process. John Marshall Henry Clay Andrew Jackson William Henry Harrison Essay A (Strong)By 1840, the process for attaining high office, particularly the Presidency, was significantly different than it had been in 1820. Those who controlled the major decisions in the government of the United States, for the most part, were still men of some wealth and experience. However, to gain and keep political power, these men had to win and keep the support of the common man. Suffrage was still limited to free, white males; however the increased interest in politics and the greater rate of participation in elections showed that some measure of mass democracy had emerged as ordinary citizens became more influential in the political process.This was something new on the world stage at that time, and the individuals listed played varying roles in inventing mass democracy. The person who be st symbolized this process was Andrew Jackson. He entered politics as a nationally known hero from the Battle of New Orleans at the conclusion of the War of 1812, and was the first president from the West. He first ran for president in 1824. No candidate that year received a majority in the Electoral College, and the House of Representatives had to choose the winner.Speaker of the House Henry Clay supported John Quincy Adams, who became President and named Clay as Secretary of State. Jackson and his supporters condemned Clay and began promoting the idea that Adams had become President because of a corrupt bargain. Though there is no definite evidence that this charge was true, the issue provided an important tool for whipping up partisan support, particularly in the West where rallies were held on the issue. They also used the cold and distant personality of John Quincy Adams to portray him to voters as an elitist who was out of touch with the needs of the people.By building up west ern enthusiasm and gaining the support of some political machines that were being developed to recruit voters among the working class in the cities of the East, the Jackson campaign easily prevailed in the Election of 1828. Jackson reciprocated by holding an inaugural party at the White House to which all were invited. The resulting fracas was referred to as â€Å"King Mob†, but it showed that Jackson was in touch with common people. Though Jackson’s Democratic Party had mass support, there were various groups that opposed it, particularly among the social and economic elite.Included were businessmen of the northeast, many of whom favored the Bank of the United States that had been attacked by Jackson. Also there were the anti-Masons who believed that the secret societies conspired to keep power and that the government should be used to promote the moral reforms favored by the preachers of the Second Great Awakening. There were also southerners and westerners who wante d federal money to be spent on internal improvements, as had been proposed by Henry Clay’s American System. These diverse groups were very disorganized in the Election of 1832, in which Jackson easily won reelection.However, by 1836, they had organized themselves into the Whig Party, and the second political party system in U. S. history was born. Political parties were beginning to be seen as important parts of mass democracy rather than as harmful threats to national unity. Henry Clay became the Whig candidate in the Election of 1836, but the Jacksonian influence was still too strong to overcome. Even though Clay had a strong record as a national leader in the Senate, the Presidency went to Martin Van Buren, Jackson’s Vice-President and chosen successor.By 1840, the Whigs were well aware of what they had to do to win the Presidency. They needed a candidate who could be portrayed as a hero and a commoner to appeal to the voting masses in the West. This candidate was W illiam Henry Harrison. He had won some battles fighting Indians much earlier in his long life, one of which was the Battle of Tippecanoe. An opposing newspaper said that Harrison should stay home in his log cabin and drink hard cider. This validated the approach of Harrison’s supporters who held rallies and marches to promote the image of the frontier hero who lived in a log cabin.This was a deliberate use of a social class status symbol to identify Harrison with a large western voting bloc. That his actual dwelling was much nicer did not seem to make much difference as the Whigs used the same tactics to arouse mass voter support that the Jacksonians had initiated earlier. The economic downturn that had occurred under Van Buren helped the Whig cause as well. The slogan, â€Å"Tippecanoe and Tyler Too† carried the day and put Harrison in the White House. Between 1820 and 1840, the ways in which large numbers of white male voters were mobilized altered the U.S. political process was forever. The idea of deference to a natural aristocracy had weakened and white men of all social classes expected to be able to vote. By 1840, the percentage of eligible voters who participated in the election had grown to a record 78 percent. The Jacksonians developed techniques of mass campaigning in the West as well as in the eastern cities. Those who opposed Jackson had no choice but to adopt similar strategies themselves to appeal to the greatly increased number of men who were now interested in politics.Through this process, the two-party system of mass democracy was developed for the first time. Essay B Between the years 1820 and 1840, there were three different approaches to governing the United States. By that time, the right to vote had been extended to most men who were free, white, and at least twenty-one years of age. This meant that candidates had to learn how to deal with a wide range of men before they could be important in government. John Marshall, And rew Jackson, and Henry Clay illustrate the different approaches.As the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall did not need to run for office. He had been a Federalist, a political party whose members tended toward the idea that government should be in the hands of a natural aristocracy. Such beliefs hampered Federalists an era that saw a greatly increased number of voters. In this new era, Marshall’s presence, until his death in the 1830s, served to remind people that there were limits to popular democracy. Decisions like the Dartmouth College case and Fletcher v.Peck showed that Constitutional guarantees for private property had to be respected, regardless of the wishes of the majority of voters in various states. This probably contributed to the development of mass democracy by preventing excesses and maintaining the importance of unity under the Constitution. With private property protected, people who considered themselves part of the natural aristocracy felt l ess vulnerable and were more willing to accept the political participation of the common man. As a successful two-term president, Andrew Jackson knew how to appeal to the voting public.He was already well-known as the hero of New Orleans. In his political campaigns, he successfully portrayed himself as a frontier hero with common tastes. Even though he owned slaves, and lived in a mansion, he was identified with the popular opinions. He also portrayed his political enemies such as John Quincy Adams and Nicholas Biddle as representatives of an elite group that was trying to prevent the common people from having what they needed from government. The campaigns of Andrew Jackson became the basis for the modern Democratic Party.Such parties are an important part of mass democracy. Henry Clay was an important figure in starting the Whig Party. American mass democracy seems to require a two-party system so that those opposed to the policies of the party in power will have a way to get powe r for themselves. Some Americans opposed Jackson’s policies because they wanted the national government to encourage economic development such as proposed in Clay’s American System. Others believed that moral reforms should receive greater emphasis.These groups became Whig supporters and by 1840, the Whig Party was a vigorous part of the emerging mass democracy, and provided a political home for many who considered themselves a cut above the common man. The continuation of some Federalist ideas, the innovations of the Jacksonian Democrats, and the development of the opposition Whig Party all contributed to the development of mass democracy in the United States. White male voters of a variety of social classes and beliefs found ways to participate in the system. Essay C (Weak) Andrew Jackson was known as Old Hickory.He had been a hero in the War of 1812. Then he got into politics and served two terms as President of the United States. He was known for opposing the Bank of the United States, which was portrayed by its opponents as a monster that would devour the fortunes of the common American people. He also would not stop the removal the Cherokee to the West, an event that is known as the Trail of Tears. Henry Clay is known as the Great Compromiser. He was involved in the Compromise of 1820, which is the Missouri Compromise. Missouri entered the union as slave state and Main as a free state.This helped to prevent a Civil War between the North and the South. Though he ran for President, he was never elected. William Henry Harrison was known as Old Tippecanoe after a battle he had won as a general in some wars against the Native Americans. When he ran for President, his running mate was named Tyler, so his campaign used the slogan â€Å"Tippecanoe and Tyler Too†. When Harrison won the election, everyone could see that a good campaign slogan is a useful thing for mass democracy. So you can see that Jackson, Clay, and Harrison each played a pa rt in developing mass democracy in the United States. . Analyze the ways in which the â€Å"transportation revolution† (1820–1860) affected economic relationships among the Northeast, the South, and the West. Response Strategy A successful essay should begin by analyzing the components of the â€Å"transportation revolution. † Road building techniques were improved and travelers on the National Road could go as far west as Illinois. The steamboat increased the importance of river transportation as travelers and freight could now easily go upstream as well as downstream. River transportation was especially important in the South.There was a boom in canal building, the most famous of which was the Erie Canal in upstate New York. Railroad construction exploded in the 1850s, especially in the North. The next task is to analyze the resulting economic relationships. A good approach would be to observe that the transportation revolution was closely linked to the market revolution that meant people were making fewer things for themselves and buying more things from far away. The Northeast provided manufactured goods for the South and the West. The South provided cotton as a raw material for factories located primarily in the Northeast.The West provided grain and livestock to feed the East. Earlier the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers had joined the South with the West as westerners depended on the port of New Orleans for imports and exports. However, the Erie Canal allowed goods to be shipped to the East Coast via the Great Lakes. This, together with railroad expansion, increased economic ties between the Northeast and the West, and weakened western economic ties with the South. Part Three 1. Explain popular sovereignty. How and why was it proposed as a political doctrine? How well did it work in Kansas in the 1850s?Response Strategy The three distinct parts in this essay prompt should prove useful in structuring a good answer. Begin with an overall in troductory thesis on popular sovereignty, perhaps including the definition in the introduction. It was designed to give the inhabitants of new territories the opportunity to decide whether slavery would be allowed. It was proposed as a political doctrine in the 1840s, probably by Senator Lewis Cass, the Democratic nominee for President in 1848. This was an effort to keep the northern and southern sections of that party united by making it unnecessary to take a tand for or against the expansion of slavery. The flaw in this logic was that the doctrine transferred a highly charged moral issue into a local context. In answering the third part of the question, be sure to mention the Kansas Nebraska Act of 1854, which allowed slave owners to settle in Kansas. Abolitionists hated this. Then it is important to summarize the essential events of the contest that has been labeled â€Å"Bleeding Kansas. † Lawlessness prevailed on both sides with raids and killings. Rival constitutions an d capitals were established.As a result, the national government was forced to face the issue it had hoped to avoid as Congress was asked by President Buchanan to accept the Lecompton Constitution as the basis for Kansas’ admission to the union. Stephen Douglas, leader of the northern Democrats and author of the Kansas Nebraska Act, believed that the vote in Kansas to approve this constitution had been fraudulent. A split in the Democratic Party resulted. So it seems fair to label popular sovereignty a failure. 2. What geographic and strategic advantages did the South possess at the outset of the Civil War?Why were these not sufficient to prevail in the struggle? Response Strategy This question can be best answered by a quick review of the early advantages of the South and then a more detailed analysis of the advantages possessed by the North. Some attention could be given to the military events of the war, but this is not necessary to answer the question well. The South had extensive territory, about the size of Western Europe. It also had a very long coastline that could be used to access outside help. This made it very difficult to conquer militarily.The South could adopt a defensive strategy, making the North bring the war to it. The North had to conquer the South and win military victories, but the South could maintain its independence by defending its interior lines and retaining at least the heart of its territory. These advantages prevented a quick northern victory, but they did not prevail in the end. Demographics favored the North, which had a larger population and continued to attract new immigrants during the war. Economic advantages overwhelmingly favored the North, which had far more factories and financial institutions.The North already had an organized and functioning national government, something the Confederacy was never entirely successful at establishing. There was also the moral issue of slavery, which made foreign nations reluctan t to aid the South. In the end, the North proved able to sustain the long war of attrition that was needed to overcome the southern geographic advantages. 3. To what extent did the Constitutional Amendments ratified during Reconstruction (13th, 14th, and 15th) bring political and economic equality to the former slaves by 1900? Essay A (Strong)Unlike the earlier amendments to the Constitution, which were designed to limit the powers of the federal government, the Reconstruction amendments asserted federal power into new situations. The victorious Union government, heavily influenced by the so-called Radical Republicans, wanted to insure the end of the South’s system of slavery and aimed to assure that the former slaves had the rights and privileges of United States citizens. While a measure of success was achieved, attitudes embedded in American society prevented full political and economic equality for the former slaves.Regrettably, the political and economic institutions of the nation evolved ways that kept most African Americans in positions of subordination, limiting their political and economic power. During the Reconstruction period, the U. S. government ended up treating most of the former Confederacy as conquered territory that had to be readmitted to the Union. Part of the process of readmission was to ratify three Constitutional Amendments designed to give rights to the former slaves. The 13th, ratified in 1865, prohibited slavery.The 14th, ratified in 1868, defined American citizenship in a way that included the former slaves and required all states to respect the rights of citizens. The 15th (1870) required that states give adult males had the right to vote regardless of race or former status as slaves. These amendments, together with a number of federal laws and agencies created to enforce them, appear on their face to be sufficient to create political and economic equality for the former slaves. However, entrenched attitudes and customs kep t these ideals from becoming a reality in the period before 1900.Freedom was a life-transforming experience for many former slaves. In the knowledge that their former masters had no legal hold over them, people traveled widely looking for lost friends and relatives. Many chose to settle in new locations or to exchange legally binding marriage vows. The Freedman’s Bureau and various private agencies set up schools to provide literacy training. The Union League provided a vehicle for many African Americans to participate in forming new constitutions for the former Confederate states. Blacks served in state legislatures and held offices at the local level.There were 14 African Americans in the U. S. House of Representatives and two in the Senate. After the deadlocked Election of 1876, however, a compromise ended what was left of federal efforts to guarantee the political rights of the former slaves. Most white Americans still considered blacks to be inferior and had little inter est in continuing Reconstruction efforts. Redeemer governments passed laws requiring literacy tests and poll taxes that served as barriers to black political participation. The hostility of some whites manifested itself in a system of terror carried out by the Ku Klux Klan and lynch mobs.Former slaves who tried to exercise political rights had to fear for their lives. African Americans who held political office or even exercised the right to vote were very few by 1900. Right after the Civil War, many former slaves hoped that they would be given plots of land as had been done in the few Union occupied areas. This rarely happened. It would have required that private property be confiscated, a practice that goes against American traditions. Instead Black Codes were passed, which usually required the former slaves to sign labor contracts with landowners.Those who did not sign, or who broke their contracts, could be arrested as vagrants. Even organizations such as the Freedman’s B ureau acquiesced in this arrangement. In time, many former slaves were able to maintain their own homes and work land as sharecroppers. However, they had to buy supplies on credit from white merchants and give a substantial percentage of each crop to the owners of the land. Very few individuals were able to make economic progress under such conditions. While there were African Americans who owned plots of land or small businesses in the period before 1900, this was quite unusual.Most of the former slaves were very poor. As Frederick Douglass pointed out, the former slaves no longer had individual masters; but they were the slaves of society. The prevailing political and economic attitudes and institutions kept them from true equality. Essay B During Reconstruction, the American national government sought to bring political and economic equality to the former slaves. Three amendments to the Constitution were passed by Congress and ratified by the states to bring this about. However, despite this well-intentioned effort, equality was not achieved.This can be seen by analyzing the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. Amendment 13 said that slavery and involuntary servitude were prohibited. Of the three amendments, this was the one that was most fully carried out. Many freedmen and women moved away from their former masters for a new start. Controls such as Black Codes that required blacks to sign labor contracts prevailed for a time. Eventually, many of the former slaves became sharecroppers. As such, they were a better off than slaves, since they could have more control over their own lives and work schedules. African American churches and social organizations were created.They were not really well-off socially or economically, but at least they were no longer slaves. Amendment 14 made the ex-slaves citizens and required that all states respect citizenship rights. This has been an important restriction on the power of the states throughout recent American history. H owever, the way this amendment was interpreted before 1900 limited its usefulness as a vehicle toward equality for the former slaves. In the 1896 case of Plessy V. Ferguson, the U. S. Supreme Court ruled that it was not against the 14th Amendment for blacks to be kept separate from whites so long as the facilities provided were equal.In actual practice this sanctioned a system of separation much like a caste system. The Jim Crow laws that were upheld by this decision meant that African Americans were almost always kept separate but hardly ever were the facilities truly equal. Amendment 15 said that citizens could not be denied the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude. For a while, many men who had been slaves did vote. However, many former Confederates resented the political power this gave them. Intimidation was used to keep blacks from voting, especially by the KKK.Some states passed poll taxes requiring that people pay to vote or literacy tests t hat were unfairly administered. By 1900, voting was more a theoretical right than an actual one for most former slaves. While people with good intentions passed the Reconstruction Amendments, the way they were implemented meant that equality was not achieved. Essay C (Weak) The framers of the Constitution provided a method for amending when a significant change is needed in the way the American government operates. The amendment has to be passed through Congress and ratified by most of the states before it can go into effect.That is what was done during Reconstruction after the Civil War. The amendments that were passed and ratified were to make sure that the former slaves had political and economic equality. The right to vote is an important political right. With this right, people can choose their own leaders and be represented. Sometimes there were organizations like the Ku Klux Klan that tried to keep the former slaves from exercising the right to vote. However, in the end, this right is fundamental to Americans and was guaranteed. An important economic right is the right to own property and hold a job.Some of the former slaves got 40 acres and a mule and had the property they needed to earn a living. Others became sharecroppers and got to keep part of what they grew for themselves. They were not as rich as most of the whites, but they had a living and got by. The former slaves did not achieve complete political and economic equality, and Jim Crow laws kept blacks separated from whites. But these three amendments insured that progress was made. Part Four 1. Analyze the part played by immigration in transforming the urban social fabric of the United States between 1870 and 1900.Essay A (Strong) In the early days of the American union, Thomas Jefferson envisioned a nation peopled mostly by yeoman farmers, each owning his own land and enjoying a relatively equal status as a citizen. While the United States never really approached this ideal, the nation was mo stly rural throughout the 19th century. Between 1870 and 1900, however, this began to change. America’s overall population doubled in those decades while the urban population tripled. The biggest transformation in U. S. cities of the era was that of shear size.Several cities such as New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia had more the one million residents. However, new waves of immigrants composed an ever-larger percentage of the people building the way of life in these and other cities. The ethnic makeup and residential settlement patterns of these groups shaped the face of cities. Economic and cultural obstacles had to be confronted and overcome. In the end, the assimilation of various ethnic groups meant that the Americans cities of 1900 were forming a way of life that would typify American society in the 20th century.While the tradition of welcoming newcomers had been a fundamental part of American life from the beginning, the sources of immigration were changing by the late 1800s. Before the 1880s, most non-English immigrants had been of northern European stock such as German and Scandinavian. Now more and more immigrants were from southern and eastern Europe. There were many Italians, Slovaks, Greeks, Poles, and Russians. These groups tended to be poorer and less educated than earlier groups of immigrants. Also, they often had religions such as Orthodox or Jewish, unlike the Protestant Christianity that had been considered the norm in earlier America.Although many who arrived in this â€Å"new immigration† had been farm workers in their home countries, they rarely had the means to leave the cities to take up farming in the U. S. They naturally gravitated toward neighborhoods where they understood the language and customs. So cities developed many crowded enclaves populated by single ethnic groups – Little Italy, Little Poland, and the like. Each new group of arrivals seemed to settle in some of the worst housing in a particular city. Th ose displaced by newcomers headed toward slightly better neighborhoods.The descendants of the original White Anglo-Saxon Protestant settlers moved to more attractive park-like districts or to less crowded communities away from the congestion. In the end, the urban geography of late 19th century America displayed considerable segregation based on socio-economic class. Economic opportunity had been the prime motivator for immigration to the United States through most of its history. This continued to be true. Jobs were available for immigrants in a wide variety of manufacturing, transportation, service, and construction occupations.Since the labor supply was so great, working-class jobs tended to be poorly paid, requiring entire families to be employed. The ready-to-wear garment business was booming, and sweatshop jobs or home piecework jobs were readily available for women and children. Dangerous and difficult construction labor was often the lot of the men as sanitation and transpor tation networks were belatedly expanded. Each ethnic community had individuals of higher status, often political bosses or labor recruiters who could speak both English and the immigrant language and link newcomers with available positions.Relative social isolation and a high degree of economic exploitation gave rise to tensions among various ethnic groups as well as between immigrants and the more settled groups. Customs regarding drinking and the observation of the Sabbath caused many older Americans to regard new immigrants with disdain. The common practice of establishing newspapers, businesses, and even schools that used only the immigrant language, not English, caused many to despair that the southern and eastern European newcomers would never become part what they regarded as the American way of life.Groups such as the American Protective Association and various labor unions to placed pressure on the government to restrict immigration. Gradually, beginning in 1882, immigratio n laws become somewhat more restrictive. However, immigration numbers continued to increase even after 1900, and cities grew ever larger. On the other hand, American cities also saw considerable efforts to improve and assimilate the new wave of immigrants. The national government of the era had an aversion to meddling in social issues. Rural interests, by and large, dominated state governments.This left it up to city governments and private agencies to deal with the immigrants. The urban political machines were often criticized for corruption. However, they did provide a network of ward bosses who could link immigrants with needed jobs and services in return for votes. The Social Gospel movement, led by Walter Rauschenbusch and Washington Gladden, brought the needs of the immigrants to the attention of many Christian churches. One outgrowth of this was the opening of settlement houses, such as Jane Addams’ Hull House in Chicago, to provide social services and cultural educati on to newcomers.The profession of social work was born in this era, and often appealed to reform-minded middle-class women. Also the rapid expansion of public school system in the cities meant that many of the younger immigrants learned the English language and American customs that were the gateway to upward social mobility. As the 19th century drew to a close, American cities were still crowded and chaotic. However, immigrant groups from southern and eastern Europe were gaining a foothold in American society.The opportunities to work hard, gain a living, and send youngsters to school meant that most immigrants remained in the United States rather than returning to Europe. In the end, American cities were more successful economically and had a more varied cultural textures because of their presence. They helped construct the type of urban social fabric that became the norm for Americans during the 20th century. Essay B During the late 1800s, the United States became increasingly ur ban. The majority of Americans still lived in small communities and on farms. However, the cities were growing faster.A large portion of the urban growth came from immigration. Immigrants changed the cities in social, political, and economic ways. By the 1880s, it became clear that an increasing percentage of the immigrants were coming from southern and eastern Europe. This wave of immigrants has been labeled the â€Å"new immigration† to distinguish it from the immigrant wave of mostly German and Irish immigrants that came before the Civil War. Because these immigrants, such as Poles and Italians, had languages and customs that differed from the majority, they settled in their own neighborhoods in the cities.This meant that they could stick to ways of life they knew with their own foods, language, and religion. In the end, this caused quite a bit of concern because many people did not think that they would Americanize rapidly enough. To hasten this process, private agencies such as Hull House and the Henry Street Settlement were organized to teach American ways to the immigrants. Also the public schools began requiring attendance and punished immigrant children for using their own language. Political machines dominated governments in many cities in the late 1800s. The most famous example was Tammany Hall in New York City.Machines used immigrant votes to keep their power. In return for being able to tell immigrants for whom to vote, political ward bosses did favors for immigrants such as getting them jobs and housing as well as and providing gifts at funerals and during hard times. When the political leaders used their positions to get rich, reformers had a hard time getting them out of office because of the loyalty displayed by those they had helped. The new immigrants occupied the lowest rungs of the urban economy. Many jobs were in factories that required repetitive tasks and often hired women and children.The garment factories, or sweatshops, in the New York City area are best known. Many wealthy and middle-class Americans had moved into larger homes and required many domestic servants, often hired from among the new immigrant class. Immigrant men often held dangerous jobs such as railroad construction or meatpacking. If they were injured, they lost their jobs. America cities were growing larger and more diverse. The immigrants between 1870 and 1900 helped to shape and change those cities. Essay C (Weak) Millions of immigrants came to the United States between 1870 and 1900 and settled in the cities.Earlier, most immigrants had come from northern and western Europe. Now most came from countries such as Italy, Greece, and Poland, in southern and eastern Europe. Immigrants were encouraged to come by factory owners and others who wanted cheap labor. Most were illiterate and had few job skills. They found it harder to adjust to America than many earlier immigrants. There were some Americans who opposed immigration. They thought th e immigrants might be after their jobs. They began to get restrictions passed like the Chinese Exclusion Act. Each immigrant group settled in its own neighborhood.Eventually, though, they began to meet each other and even intermarry. The many different immigrant groups brought change and variety to the cities. There was Italian spaghetti and pizza that became popular throughout the country. Germans brought beer and sausages. Everyone also began to enjoy Jewish bagels and the many other things that are part of the melting pot culture found in American cities. 2. Assess the roles played by three of the following in the social class conflicts that characterized the late nineteenth century. Tom Watson W. E. B. Du Bois Mary Harris â€Å"Mother† Jones Ida B. Wells Response StrategyBegin by developing an overall thesis on the nature of class conflict in the last 1800s. The most obvious areas on which to concentrate are the conflicts between labor and industry and those that occurred as the rights of African Americans were suppressed by the Jim Crow laws. But urban- rural conflicts, conflicts over immigration, and moral conflicts over issues such as prohibition could also have a place in this essay. Once an overall theme is established, go on to select three of the individuals named, identify them well, and establish their relationship to the theme of social class conflict.At first, Tom Watson tried to organize both black and white farmers to gain economic fairness. Later, as racial segregation became more firmly entrenched, he appealed to white racism as a tactic for getting political support. A Harvard-educated intellectual, Du Bois wrote and argued for immediate black equality and helped to found the NAACP. Jones was an organizer with the Knights of Labor who tried to unite all workers, both black and white, to get better wages and working conditions in mines and factories.Wells led anti-lynching protests and helped bring African American women into an organ ization to seek equal rights at a time when the leading women’s suffrage organizations only admitted whites. 3. Analyze and explain the role played by railroads in the rapid economic growth of late nineteenth century America. Response Strategy Begin with a thesis emphasizing the fundamental role of railroads played in the economic growth of the United States in this time period. Railroads were both a major purchaser of the products of mines and factories (coal and steel) and a network that linked an immense national market.Then go on to develop several lines of analysis on the importance of railroads. The list of possibilities is almost endless. Mass production and consumption were encouraged. Various areas could specialize in goods that could be shipped to the entire country. A more uniform national culture was encouraged through the creation of time zones and opportunities for travel. Public-private partnerships were arranged through government land grants. Railroads recrui ted immigrants both to work on railroad construction and to occupy lands made accessible by the new railroads.Railroads were among the first large stockholder-owned corporations with professional management. The nationwide nature of railroads necessitated some of the first federal laws regulating commerce. Hazardous working conditions on the railroads brought calls for greater protection of workers rights in cases of accident or injury, resulting in some of the first legislation in this field. Part Five 1. Explain how the presidential candidates in the Election of 1912 demonstrated the contrasting political interests and ideas of the early 1900s. Response StrategyTwo key pieces of information are essential for answering this question. The first is that the year 1912 marked a high point in the influence of the set of reform-minded political ideas labeled â€Å"Progressivism†. The second is that there was a split in the Republican Party, which allowed the Democrats to take cont rol of the White House for the first time since Cleveland left office in 1897. William Howard Taft had been elected in 1908 with the blessing of his predecessor, Theodore Roosevelt. Progressives had grown disenchanted with Taft, in part because of issues related to tariffs and conservation.With their support, Roosevelt challenged Taft for the nomination only to have his challenge thwarted because Taft controlled the Republican Party machinery that made the convention rules. Roosevelt and many of his followers bolted to form the Progressive Party, which ran TR as a third-party candidate. Meanwhile, on the Democratic side, progressives eventually prevailed in a drawn-out convention to nominate Woodrow Wilson. In the election, Taft represented the more conservative forces that favored less regulation of business and fewer reforms.Both Roosevelt and Wilson emphasized progressive ideas such as the direct election of senators and the lowering of the tariff. Wilson, however, also had many conservative supporters in the South. To emphasize his differences from Roosevelt, he called his proposals the New Freedom and called for reforms to weaken monopolies, help small business, and promote competition. Roosevelt’s New Nationalism proposals called for a stronger role for the Federal government in regulating and shaping large businesses. The election results showed that most voters favored progressive candidates.With the Republican vote split, however, Wilson captured the most states and easily won in the Electoral College. However, he took only 41 percent of the popular vote. An answer to this question also could point out that the Socialist party, which favored government ownership of major industries, received 6 percent of the vote in this election, higher than in any other presidential election. The Socialist candidate, Eugene Debs, argued that Progressives were proposing only stopgap measures that would delay radical reform. 2.Explain the role of new ideas and technologies in creating political and social tension during the 1920s. Response Strategy This is a broad question that can be taken in many directions. It is not possible to cover all of the new ideas and technologies in an answer that can be written in the 35-minute time limit. Select several topics that you can cover well and build your answer. Bolshevism and Prohibition were not really new ideas, but the communist takeover of Russia and the passage of the 18th Amendment gave them a new impact.Other ideas that could be discussed would include evolution, cultural pluralism, religious modernism, and cultural liberation in literature. The flowering of black culture in the Harlem Renaissance could be contrasted with the increase in repression evident in the growth of the KKK. The automobile, radio, and the motion picture were new technologies that became common in the 1920s. With a 50-50 split between urban and rural population for the first time, the tension between older and newer ways of life was keenly felt. Also the jazz age youth culture made generational conflicts apparent.While the national government seemed firmly in the hands of conservatives, there were still pockets of progressivism at work, particularly at the state and local level. Develop a thesis that links social and political tensions with the new ideas and inventions of the Twenties; then use appropriate examples of your choice to support and illustrate that concept. 3. Analyze the long-term significance of the New Deal for three of the following groups. industrial workers retired workers women farmers and farm workers Essay A (Strong) The nation’s economy reached the lowest level of the Great Depression in 1933, just as Franklin D.Roosevelt took office as President. His confident speeches and call for a â€Å"New Deal† for Americans boosted the morale of a discouraged nation. Critics correctly point out that FDR’s programs were improvisational, bureaucratic, and failed t o cure the Great Depression. Nonetheless, it is true that the New Deal changed the relationship between the American people and their national government in many ways that have had long-term significance. The U. S. government took responsibility for protecting its citizens from many of the economic vicissitudes of life.Many of the basic New Deal policies set in place for industrial workers, retired workers, farmers, and farm workers have remained in force in the ensuing decades. For industrial workers, the basic issues were job security, and just compensation. A major early program of the New Deal was the National Recovery Administration (NRA). This government program required various industry to set up codes regulating many business practices including wages to be paid and hours to be worked. For the first time, the right of workers to be represented by labor unions was guaranteed by the federal government.When the Supreme Court declared this complex and intrusive program unconstit utional in 1935, new laws were passed to maintain many of the protections workers had received. The National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act) of 1935 renewed the right of labor union representation; and unions, including the CIO, grew rapidly. Also in 1935, the Social Security Act included provisions for unemployment compensation and disability payments for those injured at work. Then in 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act was passed. It established the minimum wage, the 40-hour workweek, and restrictions on child labor.The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 and several other laws and economic changes have weakened the role of labor unions somewhat since the New Deal. However, the basic changes made by the Social Security Act and Fair Labor Standards Act have stood the test of time and are generally part of workers’ expectations today. Though it had the provisions mentioned above for active workers, the Social Security Act today is associated in most peoples’ minds with retired w orkers. In the 1930s, many families had become so poor that they were unable to care for their elderly relatives as had been expected in the past.Radicals like Dr. Francis Townsend proposed that all people over 60 be given good incomes by the government. Partly to reduce the appeal of radicals, FDR signed the Social Security Act into law in 1935. A program of modest pensions was set up to be paid for by a tax on the incomes of people still working and their employers. Over time, this helped to transform the nature of old age in the United States by assuring the retired workers would have at least a basic income. Over the years, the level of payments and the number of people covered have expanded greatly.Medical benefits have been added to the program. Though there are concerns about how the nation will continue to pay for them, these benefits for retired workers are now viewed as an entitlement by most Americans. Farmers, for the most part, did not share in the economic prosperity o f the 1920s; and their lot continued to decline as the United States plunged into the Great Depression. A variety of New Deal programs aimed at making farming more economically secure. The Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 paid farmers to cut production of certain products so that surpluses would not drive down prices.When this law was declared unconstitutional, it was replaced by a similar law that also emphasized soil conservation and gave payments to farmers who limited production by conserving land for the future. Special laws were passed to help specific poverty pockets, such as the Dust Bowl victims who had resettled in California and the residents of the Tennessee River Valley who got hydroelectric plants in their region of the country. Electricity made life easier for farmers in many other areas as well after the REA was launched to provide loans for the construction of electric power lines.Federal programs to construct major dams in the West also had the effect of making power and more irrigation water available for farmers in that region. Overall, the tradition of government involvement in agriculture has continued. The exact extent and nature of the restrictions and subsides has changed over time. However, they are still part of the national policy aimed at assuring a plentiful good supply. Little was done during the New Deal to help tenant farmers or farm laborers, however. Many landless farm workers are still on the lowest rungs of the American economy.The New Deal represented a basic change in how the United States government involved itself in the national economy. The economic desperation of many people during the Great Depression made them willing and even eager to embrace more government authority and control. Industrial workers, retired workers, and farmers welcomed the increased economic security many of them received. The years since have seen some efforts to reduce the level of government involvement in economic life; however the basic expectations and structures established by the New Deal remain in place. Essay BThe New Deal was an important part of our nation’s political and economic structure during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed a program of relief, recovery, and reform that changed the nature of how the government related to people. This can be seen through an examination of the long-term significance of the New Deal for industrial workers, retired workers, and women. Before the New Deal, there were few uniform standards for workers and employers in industry. Some states had progressive regulations while others did not. New Deal policies changed this.In 1935, the Wagner Act was passed which assured workers the right to be represented by labor unions. Industrial workers were organized through sit down strikes and other tactics. A standard workweek of 40 hours and a minimum wage of at least 40 cents per hour were the goals set by the Fair Labor Standards Act. Unemploym ent compensation and workmen’s compensation payments for job-related injuries were also set up during the New Deal. All of these things are still in force today. Until the New Deal, there was no Social Security program for retired workers. Many older workers had employers who could no longer afford to pay pensions.Partly as a political strategy to lessen the appeal of Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and Dr. Townsend, the Social Security Act was passed in 1935. It set up a system of pensions workers over the age of 65. Even though Herbert Hoover charged that the program would set up expectations of too much leisure time, it was very popular and millions of people began receiving benefits. Now this is an important benefit, and few politicians are willing to risk changing it. Under the New Deal, women received more attention from the government than had been the case in the past.Though the right to vote had been assured by the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920, very few women were actual ly involved in the federal government. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s wife, Eleanor, set the example by traveling extensively and speaking out on behalf of the needy. There was a program to recruit qualified women for administrative posts. Two of the best known are Frances Perkins, the Secretary of Labor and America’s first woman cabinet member, and Mary McLeod Bethune, of the National Youth Administration, America’s highest-ranking African American at the time.Women, of course, also gained from the benefits provided for workers and retirees mentioned above. Though there were no major new laws or amendments directed specifically at women’s rights, the New Deal era was part of a continuing trend of more women becoming involved in the federal government. The New Deal represented a major change in the way the government related to its citizens. These changes were of long-term significance and are still felt today. Essay C (Weak) Industrial workers got the right to bargain in union